Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research ›› 2021, Vol. 25 ›› Issue (29): 4735-4742.doi: 10.12307/2021.177
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Liu Jiajie, Zhao Xian
Received:
2020-10-31
Revised:
2020-11-03
Accepted:
2020-12-07
Online:
2021-10-18
Published:
2021-07-22
Contact:
Zhao Xian, MD, Doctoral supervisor, Associate professor, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650031, Yunnan Province, China
About author:
Liu Jiajie, Master candidate, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650031, Yunnan Province, China
Supported by:
CLC Number:
Liu Jiajie, Zhao Xian. Early vascularization of fat transplantation: regulation and mechanism[J]. Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research, 2021, 25(29): 4735-4742.
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2.1 相关细胞及细胞因子辅助脂肪移植血管化 2.1.1 内皮祖细胞在血管形成中的作用 内皮祖细胞又被称为血管内皮干细胞,目前被视为成血管必不可少的细胞,它可能来自骨髓、周围组织和脂肪移植物并且有助于其融入周围组织,可以被基质衍生因子1α诱导,在短期内迁移到缺血部位,将其与脂肪来源干细胞共培养,在早期可促进移植脂肪组织再生和血管形成[3]。GEEROMS等[4]证明了脂肪移植物内血管和功能性微血管系统形成的关键细胞是血管内皮细胞。脂肪移植物的血管化需要骨髓来源的内皮祖细胞,它可以促进移植物内有功能的微血管系统形成,并促进其与周围的组织融合[5]。据报道,血管内皮细胞在脂肪移植物内形成有功能的微血管和血管化,并促进其与周围组织融合。这些内皮细胞可起源于脂肪移植体、周围组织或骨髓来源的内皮祖细胞,在3个潜在来源中,内皮祖细胞可能是最重要的,因为它们对移植物新血管形成和存活至关重要。相关研究表明,在健康个体自体脂肪移植后的6个月内,由于早期缺血,多达80%的脂肪移植物会被吸收,研究报道内皮祖细胞可以诱导新血管生成来提高脂肪移植的存活率[5]。因此,脂肪移植后早期内皮祖细胞的增殖、募集和迁移对新血管形成至关重要,是组织工程领域重要的种子细胞。 2.1.2 成纤维细胞在血管形成中的作用 孟文霞等[6]研究证明,活化的成纤维细胞可以调控血管生成,促进血管内皮细胞迁移。另外,成纤维细胞表型的改变受转化生长因子β1调控,其中被标记为α-SMA的肌成纤维细胞可以表达各种促血管生成因子,例如:环氧化酶2、血管内皮生长因子 (vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)A 和肝细胞生长因子等,而环氧化酶2又可以促进VEGFA的表达,而VEGFA是组织新生血管形成过程中最重要的细胞因子之一,它可以促进血管内皮细胞增殖、分化并诱导其形成小管样结构[7]。因此,成纤维细胞在转化生长因子β1调控下对血管再生有重要作用。 2.1.3 淋巴细胞在血管形成中的作用 血管生成性T淋巴细胞是可以表达CD31的T细胞亚群,其中CD3+、CD31+阳性T细胞可以显著提高缺血部位血管密度,具有促进血管新生和血管内皮修复的功能。近年来,相关研究显示血管生成性T细胞可以诱导缺血组织血管再生,即通过对血管发生和血管再生的调节来实现血管平衡,从而实现血管再生。 2.1.4 巨噬细胞对血运重建的影响 研究发现基质血管组分细胞是具有高转化生长因子β表达的巨噬细胞[8],巨噬细胞及其极化可引发显性分泌因子水平的变化[9],并影响血源性干细胞浸润,阐明了巨噬细胞对组织血运重建的重要性。 2.1.5 VEGF对成血管的影响 HAMED等[10]发现基质细胞衍生因子1α能够介导内皮祖细胞诱导表达VEGF来刺激血管形成,是因为其具有较强的趋化作用。VEGF是血管生成的主要刺激因子[11-12],如:VEGF165,121,189,206,碱性成纤维细胞生长因子2、胰岛素样生长因子、瘦素、肿瘤坏死因子等,但以VEGF最为重要,其促进血管再生是明确的。 2.1.6 富血小板血浆对血管再生的影响 LEI等[13]发现富含血小板的血浆包含许多生长因子,包括血小板衍生生长因子、转化生长因子β和VEGF都是重要的促血管再生的生长因子,可以促进血管形成[14]。此外,富血小板血浆可以通过其抗菌和抗炎特性促进组织和血管再生[15],已证明富血小板血浆可以促进脂肪干细胞的生长并保持其分化潜能。 2.1.7 碱性成纤维细胞生长因子促进血管再生 碱性成纤维细胞生长因子是成纤维细胞生长因子的一员,它可以调节细胞自我更新、分化和生存,重要的是,有证据支持碱性成纤维细胞生长因子参与了血管生成和血管重塑的过程[16]。研究显示,将2.0 μg的碱性成纤维细胞生长因子与脂肪移植物混合,可以显著提高脂肪移植物的存活率和血管数量[17]。 2.1.8 白细胞介素8在血管形成中的作用 白细胞介素8是一种趋化因子,可以促进内皮细胞迁移和血管形成,增加组织中VEGF和VEGF受体的表达[18],进而促进新生血管形成。BLANDINIERES等[19]研究表明,白细胞介素8可以通过自分泌或旁分泌来刺激内皮集落形成细胞,从而促进血管生成。而白细胞介素8 增强内皮集落形成细胞的血管生成特性取决于其受体的表达。 2.1.9 胰岛素及胰岛素样生长因子1促进血管再生 作为一种多功能激素,胰岛素具有多种生理调节功能,可以促进有丝分裂,促进脂肪细胞增殖分化,研究发现胰岛素是通过胰岛素受体1和胰岛素受体3来促进细胞增殖分化[20]。胰岛素样生长因子1能促进细胞增殖、分化和成熟,具有多种调节功能,但最主要是通过自分泌和旁分泌来发挥作用[21]。 2.1.10 肝细胞生长因子对血管再生的作用 肝细胞生长因子最初被纯化为原代培养中成熟肝细胞的有效促分裂原,是一种与纤溶酶原结构同源的含环蛋白多肽。它是间充质衍生的多效性因子,可调节细胞生长、细胞运动和各种类型细胞形态的发生,被认为是上皮间质相互作用的体液介质,负责胚胎发生发展过程中的形态发生及组织相互作用和器官发生。散射因子、肿瘤细胞毒性因子和肺成纤维细胞衍生的上皮有丝分裂原的表征和分子克隆表明,肝细胞生长因子最近已显示出在体内诱导血管生成[22],在血管生成级联反应中充当旁分泌介质。 2.2 干细胞对脂肪移植物血管化的重要作用 2.2.1 脂肪干细胞调控生长因子对血管生成的影响 基于细胞的组织工程技术已被证明是再生医学最有前途的替代疗法之一。这种方法由反应细胞、支持基质和促进分化、再生的生物活性分子组成的相互作用三联体构成。干细胞凭借可再生能力和多能性将成为一种极有前途的细胞。脂肪干细胞是成人间充质干细胞的丰富来源地,具有分化为脂肪细胞、肌细胞、骨细胞、软骨细胞和内皮细胞等多种细胞类型的能力,在畸形、缺损等疾病中应用极为广泛[23]。CHEN等[24]发现脂肪干细胞可以促进血管化并提高脂肪移植物存活率,其机制是通过脂肪干细胞富集脂肪移植物来抑制炎性细胞因子产生,促进血管生长因子表达,提高脂肪移植物存活率和远期体积保留率。DOORNAERT等[25]研究表明脂肪干细胞可以释放VEGF、肝细胞生长因子等多种促进血管再生的因子来促进血管生成[26],促进脂肪形成,促进移植物滞留,还证明其能在体外引发胶原凝胶中的血管形成。除此之外,脂肪干细胞还可以通过旁分泌作用分泌各种生长因子和外泌体[27- 28],在抗凋亡、抗炎、血管生成和免疫调节中起重要作用[29]。 2.2.2 毛囊干细胞促进血管形成的机制 最新研究发现,毛囊干细胞可以被VEGF165诱导分化为内皮细胞[30],将VEGF165修饰的毛囊干细胞包被在3D支架中移植到体内,可以使种子细胞更好地附着生长,可以明显促进血管化,这种创新性思路为脂肪移植早期血管化提供了理论依据。 2.3 不同部位来源的脂肪组织或脂肪干细胞存在差异 有文献报道,不同部位脂肪干细胞在血管化和存活率方面存在差异,AHMADI等[31]分别比较来自大腿和腹部脂肪干细胞,发现来自腹部脂肪干细胞在向血管内皮细胞分化和分泌VEGF方面有更多的优势,有利于血管生成。其相关机制可能是不同部位脂肪干细胞功能存在差异、不同部位脂肪组织结构和体积也存在差别以及分化为血管内皮细胞的生长因子存在差异。另一项研究表明,从腹部浅表脂肪组织分离出的脂肪干细胞比从其他部位分离出的脂肪干细胞对细胞凋亡的刺激更不敏感。移植后脂肪干细胞的存活是再生移植技术的关键挑战之一,因此,腹部脂肪干细胞的这一特征使该贮藏库成为收获脂肪组织或细胞的有利地点,源自腹部皮下脂肪组织的脂肪干细胞具有更有利的特性,与腹部内脏脂肪组织相比,来自腹部皮下脂肪组织的脂肪干细胞具有更高的增殖速率和更高的成脂潜能[32]。似乎两种脂肪干细胞表型都随深度和位置而变化,因此在选择合适的解剖部位进行脂肪干细胞收获是极为关键的。 2.4 预处理脂肪组织可以提高成活率 文献报道A型肉毒毒素在改善血管形成中有一定作用,SHI等[33]发现A型肉毒毒素治疗的脂肪移植物可以固定周围肌肉,改善血管和成熟脂肪细胞密度、脂肪移植物组织学特征以及移植到肌肉中脂肪移植物的保留率来促进血管生成。CAI等[34]发现他莫昔芬处理腹股沟脂肪可以使UCP-1和VEGF表达增强,影响脂肪代谢并导致脂肪组织褐变,从而改善血管化。据报道,选择性β1阻滞剂美托洛尔有助于脂肪移植血管化,OKYAY等[35]比较了胰岛素、美托洛尔和去铁胺对脂肪移植物存活的影响,结果显示,美托洛尔组脂肪移植成活的脂肪细胞比对照组和胰岛素组多30%(分别为P < 0.05和P < 0.01),差异有统计学意义。因此,选择性β1阻滞剂美托洛尔处理脂肪移植物可以加速脂肪移植物新生血管形成。SARI等[36]发现低剂量甲氨蝶呤可以增加移植脂肪组织血管形成。KIM和LEE等[37]研究发现分数CO2激光预处理可增加脂肪移植后初始阶段VEGF的表达及微血管密度,有助于脂肪移植早期血管化,能有效解决缺血问题,并提高脂肪存活率。但这些方法和技术对机体多少都会存在有害性,最新一项研究表明,迷迭香酸(多酚化合物)是一种抗氧化剂,可以减少脂质过氧化和膜降解,增加脂肪移植物的保留率[38],该研究还表明乙醇对脂肪移植物保留率也有积极作用,这项研究在PubMed和Google Scholar数据库中都未能检索到,如果可预测,将对脂肪移植存活率有重大贡献。 2.5 基质血管组分辅助脂肪移植血管化 近年来,对基质血管部分凝胶(SVF-gel)的研究成果显著。基质血管组分凝胶是一种脂肪组织提取物,富含前再生基质血管组分细胞和细胞外基质蛋白[39]。通过掺入脂肪细胞基质发现其有利于血管生成[40]。ZHU等[41]还发现,基质血管组分通过其血管生成特性促进脂肪移植后移植物的保留,基质血管组分辅助组表现出更高的白细胞介素6和肿瘤坏死因子α表达水平,以及更低水平的白细胞介素10表达。基质血管组分是通过众所周知的促血管生成机制(旁分泌功能和参与新血管再生)以及通过基质血管组分抗炎特性促进脂肪移植物后期的保留(表达和抑制各种细胞因子及转化巨噬细胞表型)来加速血管形成。相关研究显示,通过胶原酶消化从脂肪组织中分离出的基质血管组分移植的脂肪组织比没有基质血管组分移植的脂肪组织存活更好;还证明了脂肪移植物和基质血管组分之间的相互作用可显著延长基质血管组分存活时间,这有助于通过基质血管组分分化为结构细胞来促进脂肪移植物的存活和血管再生[40]。这表明脂肪来源的基质血管组分的移植可通过以下两个步骤来改善局部缺血:①全身性炎症反应从骨髓中转移出炎症细胞;②脂肪来源的干/基质细胞移植和炎症性转移细胞协同诱导血管生成[42]。因此,使用基质血管组分是提高脂肪移植物存活的高效技术。 2.6 组织工程体系 2.6.1 脂肪干细胞联合支架材料的应用 组织工程学和再生医学的最新进展是采用细胞生物支架来模仿天然的体内微环境,将高分子材料作为支架,使种子细胞更好地附着、增殖和迁移。ZHANG等[43]将壳聚糖纳米球作为载体,在载有人脂肪干细胞的胶原-壳聚糖支架中植入含有VEGF的聚乳酸-共-乙醇酸/聚乙二醇(PLGA/PEG)微球,经体外培养,再植入裸鼠体内离散血管蒂周围的隔离室中,8周后发现裸鼠体内血管蒂周围血管密度明显增高。 2.6.2 细胞外基质对脂肪移植血管化的作用 近年来,对细胞外基质的研究也不断深入,细胞外基质是血管壁和脂肪组织的重要结构,内皮细胞的黏附、增殖和迁移都会依赖细胞外基质的生物结构,其最主要的成分是胶原蛋白,具有良好的3D多孔隙结构及化学、物理性能,生物相容性好,且有能力促进细胞黏附和增殖,为种子细胞提供适宜的微环境[44]。利用天然聚合物(例如胶原蛋白或透明质酸)重建而成的生物材料更有潜力。胶原蛋白的良好生物性能和多孔隙结构允许脂肪干细胞在体外和体内分化为成熟的脂肪细胞[45]。另外,失活的天然细胞外基质被认为是用于组织重建的合适支架材料,以组织特异性方式嵌入天然生化刺激物以促进细胞黏附、增殖和分化[46-47]。使用这种方法对小动物(小鼠、兔子和大鼠)进行的体内临床前研究证明了脂肪干细胞的能力,种子细胞植入支架后,可通过结缔组织和新生血管再生形成脂肪组 织[48-49],这对脂肪移植早期血管化有重要意义。 2.7 外泌体对脂肪移植物血管化的促进作用 脂肪干细胞来源外泌体(adipose stem cell derived exosomes,ADSC-exos)是一种新型脂肪因子,其获取方便、低免疫原性、结构稳定、血管化良好、与亲本细胞功能相似,并且在早期(4周前)具有更强的脂肪再生能力[50]。将剪碎的脂肪组织分别与外泌体、源细胞(细胞辅助脂质转移)或生理盐水混合,植入小鼠皮下,10周后,发现外泌体组中的脂肪移植和细胞辅助脂质转移显示出更好的脂肪完整性,更少的油囊肿,并减少了纤维化。对巨噬细胞、炎性因子、血管生成因子、脂肪形成因子和细胞外基质的进一步研究表明,这些外泌体促进血管生成并上调了早期炎症[51-52],而在脂肪移植的中后期,他们发挥了脂肪形成作用,还提高了胶原蛋白合成水平[52]。脂肪间充质干细胞来源的细胞外囊泡能够通过改善血管生成和调节免疫反应来增强脂肪移植物的体积保留能力[53]。脂肪间充质干细胞来源的细胞外囊泡转移到巨噬细胞中,并利用胞外囊泡携带的活性STAT3.28反式激活精氨酸酶1来诱导抗炎性 M2表型。许多研究表明,M2巨噬细胞分泌各种促血管生成因子(例如VEGF)并表达高水平的白细胞介素12,表明 M2巨噬细胞在炎症抑制和伤口愈合中起着重要作用。M2巨噬细胞还具有修复能力,因此也可以提高脂肪移植物的保留率。假设脂肪间充质干细胞来源的细胞外囊泡可以增强M2样的极化激活,这可能在提高脂肪移植物的保留率方面起重要作用。因此,脂肪干细胞来源的外泌体通过上调早期炎症反应和增强血管再生来改善移植物保留。HAN等[54]研究发现来自缺氧处理的人脂肪来源干细胞外泌体通过调节VEGF/VEGFR信号传导而具有更高增强脂肪移植中血管生成的能力及更高的体外和体内成血管能力[55],至少部分通过VEGF/VEGFR信号传导。另外,最新研究显示脂肪干细胞衍生的外泌体对脂肪移植物存活的影响。ADSC-Exos的共移植可以有效地促进脂肪移植物存活、新血管形成,减轻炎症,而缺氧治疗可以进一步增强ADSC-Exos的有益作用[56]。此前,还未有相关文献报道ADSC-Exos共移植在脂肪移植中应用的研究。与细胞辅助脂肪移植术相比,间充质干细胞外来体的共移植具有许多优势,例如非免疫原性、非致瘤性和易储存和运输。因此,ADSC-Exos的共移植是脂肪移植的可行策略。这些特征可使外泌体成为再生医学中最有吸引力的无细胞替代物。 2.8 通过Nrf2和TLR4途径来调节血管生成 自体脂肪移植是一种有效的重建手段,然而,其成功率受到移植物保留不一致、氧化应激、炎症反应以及早期血管化不足的限制。脂肪干细胞可以促进脂肪移植物的存活率,尽管其潜在机制尚不清楚。CHEN等[24]探讨了TLR4和 Nrf2信号通路调节氧化应激和炎症反应对脂肪干细胞体外和体内活力和功能的影响。 2.9 其他 近年来,有学者提出一种新理论,脂肪提取物可以促进血管生成[57]。脂肪提取物是将纳米脂肪通过机械加工处理而成的无细胞结构成分,在理论上可以避免与细胞有关的问题,并且可以更成功地长期储存。利用纳米脂肪和脂肪提取物,一种新的脂肪处理策略,可以通过对脂肪干细胞的促血管生成、抗凋亡和促增殖作用来改善脂肪移植物存活率。"
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