Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research ›› 2014, Vol. 18 ›› Issue (7): 1088-1093.doi: 10.3969/j.issn.2095-4344.2014.07.018
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Liu Yi-jun1, Zhang Qiu-xia1, Tian Jing2
Revised:
2013-12-04
Online:
2014-02-12
Published:
2014-02-12
Contact:
Tian Jing, Master, Professor, Associate chief physician, Center for Orthopedics, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510282, Guangdong Province, China
About author:
Liu Yi-jun, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510282, Guangdong Province, China
CLC Number:
Liu Yi-jun, Zhang Qiu-xia, Tian Jing. Mesenchymal stem cells-stents complex in repair of meniscus injury in knee joint[J]. Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research, 2014, 18(7): 1088-1093.
2.1 间充质干细胞的概述 间充质干细胞是指胚胎发育过程中,在多种成体间叶组织中留存下来的未分化原始细胞。间充质干细胞可来源于滑膜、骨膜、骨骼肌、脂肪组织和脐血[4]。间充质干细胞可在自我增殖同时,保持多向分化潜能。后续研究表明,骨髓来源的间充质干细胞可以分化为骨、软骨、滑膜、肌腱、韧带和脂肪等[5-7]。据此,学者认为间充质干细胞可用于上述组织的修复。此技术有望用于修复受损的间叶组织。此外,间充质干细胞还可分泌许多细胞因子,这些细胞因子具有免疫抑制性,其可为受损组织创造一个再生微环境,从而阻止损伤加剧和促进再生反应。综上所述,间充质干细胞可用于治疗心肌梗死、移植物抗宿主反应、半月板损伤、脑卒中和脊髓损伤等疾病[8-9]。 2.2 间充质干细胞治疗半月板损伤的条件需求研究 2.2.1 间充质干细胞的种类 间充质干细胞可来源于多种组织[4],Nevo等[10]对比了3种不同来源的间充质干细胞对于关节软骨再生的疗效,发现自体骨髓间充质干细胞疗效最好,同种异体胚胎来源的间充质干细胞疗效次之,同种异体骨髓间充质干细胞疗效最差。研究显示,膝关节损伤后增殖的细胞主要是滑膜间充质干细胞而非骨髓间充质干细胞[11]。虽然骨髓间充质干细胞和滑膜间充质干细胞有相似的表型和功能,但滑膜间充质干细胞更具有分化为软骨细胞的潜能[12-13]。 2.2.2 间充质干细胞的生存微环境 合适的间充质干细胞生存微环境是软骨分化和成的重要因素。间充质干细胞生存微环境包括[14]:①细胞间的连接。干细胞和支持细胞间的连接有利于前者的增殖和分化,研究发现,钙黏素能促进果蝇有缺陷的干细胞分化为正常干细 胞[15]。②多种细胞因子。间充质干细胞定向分化为软骨细胞需要转化生长因子、成纤维细胞生长因子和血小板衍生生长因子等。③细胞与细胞外基质,如纤维蛋白等的相互作用。④氧梯度。研究发现低氧环境可促进增殖和抑制分化[16]。 许多学者致力于通过改进间充质干细胞生存微环境,从而更好地培养和诱导间充质干细胞。Cui 等[2]发现,共培养成熟半月板细胞和间充质干细胞能够有效地增加半月板细胞外基质含量,同时不引起细胞肥大。临床上自体软骨移植最大的问题在于软骨来源缺乏,此法以间充质干细胞作为种子细胞,有望解决上述问题。Ponticiello等[17]以10 μg/L的转化生长因子β3培养含有12×106的间充质干细胞悬液21 d后,可以检测到一定量的硫酸氨基葡萄糖,Ⅱ型胶原纤维等软骨样细胞外基质。相同培养条件下,此细胞浓度获得的细胞外基质最多。Solorio等[18]将包含转化生长因子转化生长因子β1的聚合微球至于间充质干细胞中。结果提示,此法与传统聚集细胞培养法相比成本更低,且能够减少聚集细胞中心和外周的生长因子浓度差,从而有利于间充质干细胞向软骨细胞分化。蔡贵泉等[19]含有转化生长因子β1、胰岛素样生长因子Ⅰ、地塞米松及抗坏血酸的DMEM-LG培养液中对间充质干细胞进行培养,免疫细胞化学染色示实验组Ⅱ型胶原纤维阳性,而对照组为阴性。研究者据此认为,间充质干细胞可在DMEM-LG培养液诱导下分泌纤维软骨样细胞外基质,从而应用于组织工程半月板。 2.2.3 生物因子的作用 间充质干细胞需要在一定细胞因子,激素等物质的诱导下才能定向分化为软骨细胞。诱导条件主要包括:转化生长因子、成纤维细胞生长因子、血小板衍生生长因子、胰岛素样生长因子、骨形态发生蛋白家族、糖皮质激素、甲状腺激素、力学刺激等[20-21]。研究发现,很多生长因子,如干细胞生长因子、纤维母细胞生长因子、白血病抑制因子等被固定于聚合氧化铝或聚酯纤维等结构后能更好地促进干细胞生长分化[22-23]。有学者发现不同的生长因子针对半月板的部位,血小板衍生生长因子AB和肝细胞生长因子可以促进半月板的整体生长,白细胞介素1只能促进半月板外侧区域的生长,骨形态发生蛋白2只能促进半月板中间区域的生长。产生这种差别的原因可能是半月板不同区域的血流量不同,其中半月板外侧部的血流量比其他部位高出10%[24]。 Pangborn等[25]比较了转化生长因子β1、血小板衍生生长因子AB、胰岛素样生长因子Ⅰ和成纤维细胞生长因子促进半月板细胞外基质生长的作用。结果显示,转化生长因子β是最具优势的组织工程半月板细胞外基质生成因子。Goessler等[26]发现,转化生长因子β1、β2、β3、β4皆具有促进分化间充质干细胞向软骨细胞分化的作用,然而LTBP1、LTBP2具有软骨细胞去分化的作用。Gunja等[27]发现转化生长因子β1能够显著地促进半月板细胞外基质的生长,其中胶原纤维提高了15倍,糖胺聚糖提高了8倍。研究认为,转化生长因子β1是通过下调ALK5/Smad2/3通路的人类相关转录基因2(Runx-2)来调控间充质干细胞的软骨细胞分化[28]。研究发现,转化生长因子β1和成纤维细胞生长因子能加快间充质干细胞的体外增殖并促使其向软骨细胞系分化[29-30]。不少学者研究了转化生长因子β1促进软骨分化的最佳浓度,Pangborn等[31]发现,10或100 μg/L的转化生长因子β1都可以促进单层培养的半月板纤维软骨细胞的细胞外基质增殖。Goessler等[26]认为,转化生长因子β1的饱和浓度为2-10 μg/L。 2.3 组织工程半月板的支架选择 Hutmacher[32]认为,良好的组织工程半月板支架应该具备以下4点条件:①具有三围多孔隙结构,以便细胞生长和营养物质,代谢产物的流动。②具有生物相容性和可吸收性。③具有适当的表面化学成分以让细胞黏附,增殖和分化。④具有良好的机械性能。 2.3.1 人工支架 人工支架包括:聚氨酯类可降解支架、聚乳酸支架、聚羟基乙酸支架、凝胶类支架等。人工支架孔径和孔隙率皆可控,具有生物相容性好和可塑性强的优点,但其细胞亲和力和亲水性不足[33]。同时,人工支架缺乏相关细胞黏附相关因子,从而阻碍间充质干细胞的生长分化。其降解产物可影响细胞外基质的酸碱平衡,容易引起炎症反应[34]。 聚氨酯类可降解支架目前也得到广泛应用,这种支架生成的半月板样组织在生物力学上和正常半月板无异,但其亲水性和细胞亲和力皆不足[35-36]。Testa等[37]以聚氨酯类支架修复新西兰家兔的半月板,结果显示支架组织和自身残留半月板切合良好,并且能够保护关节软骨。 聚乳酸、聚羟基乙酸及其聚合物聚乳酸羟基乙酸具有良好的可吸收性和生物相容性,在组织工程的各个领域中应用广泛。Kang等[38]先予实验组家兔行半月板全切除,再以75∶25的聚羟基乙酸和聚乳酸来制作纤维网复合物,以培养半月板细胞。1周后将半月板细胞支架复合物植入家兔的受损膝关节内。6周和10周的苏木精-伊红染色显示纤维结缔组织再生。10周的番红O染色示透明质酸含量丰富。10周后,支架复合体的形态和天然半月板相似。此研究首次表明半月板组织工程可用于治疗半月板完全缺失的家兔。Gong 等[39]于聚羟基乙酸/聚乳酸诱导间充质干细胞向纤维软骨分化。2周后将其移植入猪半月板的人造孔隙中。3个月和6个月后新植入的半月板和原有半月板,软骨下骨连接良好。免疫组化分析示:组织工程半月板的Ⅱ型胶原、糖胺聚糖与原有半月板相似。然而,新植入的半月板仍和天然半月板有所差异,且间充质干细胞向软骨细胞分化的机制仍尚未清楚。研究者认为蛋白质工程学用于此方面的研究有广阔前景。Izal等[40]发现,L-聚乳酸支架有利于间充质干细胞聚集和促进其分泌Ⅰ,Ⅱ型胶原纤维等软骨样细胞外基质,从而增加组织工程半月板的机械强度。 研究者用高水含量聚乙烯醇作为人工半月板的支架,移入家兔的受损外侧半月板中,1年后人工半月板仍无明显退行性改变[41-43]。生物力学测试显示,聚乙烯醇的黏弹性和人类半月板相似,且很好能对抗骨关节的摩擦。1年和1.5年后,置入聚乙烯醇支架人工半月板的膝关节完好,但半月板切除侧的膝关节退行性改变和骨性关节炎明显。聚乙烯醇有广阔临床应用前景,但其固定方法和耐受性仍有待解决。早期的聚乙烯醇水凝胶抗压和抗剪切力负荷不足,有学者用其他材料和聚乙烯醇混合制成复合支架,以获得更好的机械性能。卢华定 等[44]通过对聚乙烯醇适当改进,并将其与羟基磷灰石混合以模仿天然软骨底层,形成牢固的活性连接。卢华定等用聚乙烯醇/羟基磷灰石复合支架修复家兔受损半月板,12周后,复合支架和半月板交界处有大量软骨细胞增殖和骨样组织长入。此表明聚乙烯醇/羟基磷灰石复合支架组织相容性良好,可用于半月板损伤的修复。 2.3.2 天然支架 天然支架包括胶原支架、细胞纤维蛋白胶、小肠黏膜下层脱细胞支架等。胶原支架具有生物相容性好,抗拉能力强和抗原性低等特点,但因其孔隙结构不可改变,在使用上有所受限。其中胶原半月板移植物研究较多,且已用于临床。Martinek等[45]将胶原半月板移植物和纤维软骨细胞混合后移植入成年麦兰奴种绵羊的膝关节内。大体和组织学观察显示实验组血管形成和细胞外基质生成的速度更快。Hirschmann 等[46]观察了67例接受膝关节镜下置入胶原半月板移植物的患者,1年后所有患者的膝关节功能改善,疼痛减轻。但是MRI检查结果提示,几乎所有患者的胶原半月板移植物都出现了退化和变形。胶原半月板移植物的机械特性不及天然半月板,主要用于半月板周围区无受损的情况。徐青镭等[47]以胶原-糖胺聚糖为支架,将体外扩增,诱导分化的间充质干细胞回植体内。大体,组织学和电镜结果显示,术后24周内,胶原-糖胺聚糖复合物被逐渐降解,而间充质干细胞合成新胶原,逐渐形成纤维软骨样组织。研究者认为此法取材方便,且避免了同种异体的排斥反应,是一种可靠的半月板重建方法。刘和风等[48]构建了丝素-胶原复合物半月板支架,其将体外培养扩增的兔半月板纤维软骨细胞接种于该支架上进行培养,结果显示丝素-胶原复合物能促进半月板细胞的黏附与增殖,其生物相容性良好,有望用于半月板损伤的修复。 糖胺聚糖是纤维软骨的主要细胞外基质,其包含透明质酸、硫酸软骨素、硫酸皮肤素、硫酸乙酰肝素、肝素和硫酸角质素素等。糖胺聚糖具有较好的黏弹性和促进细胞生长的特性。但单独使用时机械性能较差,因此糖胺聚糖常与其他材料构成复合支架。透明质酸是糖胺聚糖的一种重要成分,其吸水性强,非抗原性等特点使其在组织工程中有广阔前景。Angele等[49]将骨髓间充质干细胞移植于透明质酸-明胶支架上,经过软骨细胞分化后,移植于家兔的受损半月板上,结果显示该支架具有良好的生物相容性。阎继红等[50]研究了胶原-透明质-酸硫酸软骨素支架材料构建组织工程软骨的可行性。研究者将体外培养的软骨细胞接种在复合支架上,21 d后细胞均匀扩散到支架孔隙,表明复合支架亲水性较好。结果显示,软骨细胞在胶原-透明质酸-硫酸软骨素复合支架材料上增殖分化良好,并保持软骨细胞特异的分化,同时复合支架组的软骨细胞分泌的细胞外基质,明显高于胶原支架组,这表明胶原-透明质酸-硫酸软骨素复合支架有较广阔的应用前景。 2.4 间充质干细胞治疗半月板损伤的疗效研究 运用间充质干细胞治疗半月板损伤主要分为间充质干细胞直接移植和先于体外诱导分化为软骨细胞再移植两种。有学者推测直接移植的间充质干细胞处于不同阶段且可多向分化为不同种类的细胞,故不利于软骨修复[51]。但是张文元 等[52]的实验证明,未经诱导的和经软骨细胞诱导的骨髓间充质干细胞对关节软骨缺损疗效相似,原因可能是软骨缺损处存在诱导骨髓间充质干细胞软骨分化的微环境。 同时,很多国外的研究也表明,直接移植间充质干细胞对半月板损伤的疗效明显。Horie 等[53]给半月板大面积损伤的家兔注射标记了荧光素酶和半乳糖苷酶基因的滑膜间充质干细胞。注射2-8周后,实验组的半月板修复大体上优于对照组。12周后,实验组的再生半月板半乳糖苷酶基因阳性且具有正常半月板形态。结果表明,注射的滑膜间充质干细胞黏附于半月板受损处,分化为软骨细胞。在不动员远隔器官的情况下修复半月板。Ruiz-Iban等[54]发现,脂肪来源的间充质干细胞处理可促进受损家兔半月板的愈合,组织学分析示,再生半月板的纤维软骨结构良好和脂肪来源的间充质干细胞已分化为永久细胞。脂肪来源的间充质干细胞对半月板的修复与伤口长短无关,但是当缝合延迟时,疗效的提高并不明显。Katagiri等[55]发现移植聚集的滑膜间充质干细胞能更有效地治疗大鼠半月板损伤。Dutton等[56]的研究表明,间充质干细胞明显促进了半月板无血管区损伤的恢复,但是恢复后的半月板的机械性能有所下降。王志波等[57]发现纤维蛋白胶是骨髓间充质干细胞以及骨形态发生蛋白的理想载体,三者的复合物可有效促进无血运区半月板损伤的修复,从而为组织工程半月板的临床应用提供了一种新方法。 有学者认为,先于体外诱导分化为软骨细胞再移植的方法能够避免间充质干细胞受骨形态发生蛋白诱导分化的影响,从而取得良好疗效[51]。Zellner等[58]在家兔半月板的无血供区开一直径2 mm的孔,不处理或加入富血小板的血浆与自体骨髓或自体间充质干细胞。自体间充质干细胞先于体外诱导分化为软骨细胞2周,2周后其细胞外基质已含有纤维软骨样组织。结果表明,仅有间充质干细胞移植组可见半月板的修复,可见间充质干细胞有望用于相关方面的治疗。张文元等[52]向软骨缺损的家兔膝关节植入经软骨分化的兔骨髓间充质干细胞/明胶海绵复合体,其修复速度较对照组明显加快。Al Faqeh等[59]研究了间充质干细胞经软骨诱导分化与否对半月板损伤疗效的影响。注射间充质干细胞的6周后,诱导组和非诱导组的ICRS(International Cartilage Repair Society)评分无明显差别,但诱导组在显微镜下可见半月板再生。组织学检查示,诱导组再生半月板的厚度和形态均与正常半月板相似。研究者认为,经软骨诱导分化的间充质干细胞与未经诱导者相比,具有更强的半月板修复作用。"
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