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18 July 2026, Volume 30 Issue 20 Previous Issue   

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A serum-free culture medium for the early-stage formation of tissue-engineered vascular grafts Chen Ying, Sun Xuheng, Liu Qing, Xiao Cong, Jiang Hongjing, Lin Zhanyi 2026, 30 (20):  5093-5102.  doi: 10.12307/2026.163 Abstract ( 76 )   PDF (6657KB) ( 28 )   Save BACKGROUND: In the field of tissue engineering, the use of smooth muscle cells for three-dimensional culture to construct vascular grafts holds significant importance. However, the current widespread use of culture media containing fetal bovine serum presents potential ethical, safety, and compositional complexity issues that may affect experimental outcomes and hinder the clinical application of vascular grafts. OBJECTIVE: To identify a serum-free medium with well-defined components to replace traditional serum-containing culture medium for smooth muscle cell culture and evaluate the feasibility of using serum-free culture medium for constructing tissue-engineered blood vessels. METHODS: Bovine thoracic aortic smooth muscle cells were isolated and cultured using a tissue explant method, and cells from passages 3 to 8 were used for subsequent experiments. Serum-free culture medium was prepared: DMEM F12 medium containing 5 mg/mL bovine serum albumin, 50 µg/mL L-ascorbic acid, 0.4 µg/mL fetuin, 15 ng/mL basic fibroblast growth factor, 15 ng/mL platelet-derived growth factor BB, and 10 µg/mL insulin, 5.5 µg/mL transferrin, and 67 ng/mL sodium selenite. (1) Two-dimensional culture: Vascular smooth muscle cells were divided into four groups and cultured in serum-free medium or DMEM F12 medium containing 0%, 5%, or 10% fetal bovine serum, respectively. Cell morphology was observed, and cell proliferation was assessed using CCK-8, EdU, a CytoCube cell counter, and flow cytometry. Total collagen content was determined by hydroxyproline quantification. Expression of smooth muscle cell contractile markers, calmodulin 1 and α-smooth muscle actin, was assessed by immunofluorescence staining and qRT-PCR. Expression of type I and type III collagen was assessed by immunoblotting. The scratch test was used to detect cell migration. (2) Three-dimensional culture: Vascular smooth muscle cells were seeded on polyglycolic acid scaffolds and cultured in four groups and cultured in serum-free medium or DMEM F12 medium containing 0%, 5%, or 10% fetal bovine serum, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy was used to analyze external tissue morphology. Hematoxylin-eosin staining and Masson staining were used to observe tissue morphology. Immunofluorescence staining was used to detect type I and type III collagen expression. Total collagen content was measured using the hydroxyproline quantification method. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) Two-dimensional culture: Inverted microscopy revealed that the 0% serum culture group had the lowest cell density and larger cell size. Compared with the 5% and 10% serum culture groups, the cells in the serum-free culture group exhibited a more elongated, spindle-shaped structure and more regular cell arrangement. CCK-8, EdU, CytoCube cell counter, and flow cytometry assays showed that cell proliferation in the serum-free culture group was less than that in the 10% serum culture group, but greater than that in the 0% and 5% serum culture groups. Calmodulin 1 and α-smooth muscle actin expression levels were lower in the 5% and 10% serum culture groups, and serum-free culture group than in the 0% serum culture group, while cell migration was stronger than that in the 0% serum culture group. Total collagen content was higher in the serum-free culture group than in the other three groups. Type III collagen expression was higher in the 10% and serum-free culture groups than in the 0% and 5% serum culture groups. (2) Three-dimensional culture: Scanning electron microscopy revealed that smooth muscle cells in each group formed early tissue-engineered vascular scaffolds on the polyglycolic acid scaffolds, with the serum-free culture group displaying the greatest extracellular matrix deposition. The serum-free culture medium group showed significantly higher total collagen content and type I and type III collagen expression than the other three groups. Hematoxylin-eosin staining and Masson staining revealed the formation of tissue-engineered vascular scaffolds in all three groups except the 0% serum culture group. (3) The results indicate that serum-free culture medium promotes the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro and the formation of tissue-engineered vascular grafts. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Preparation of Cu2+-containing microarc oxidation functional coating on medical magnesium alloy and its anti-tumor and angiogenesis-promoting effects Lin Kejian, Chai Yinghong, Zou Jie, Huang Ruixin, Fang Yongchao, Huang Jing, Yang Qin, Luo Xia, Zhang Hong 2026, 30 (20):  5103-5114.  doi: 10.12307/2026.330 Abstract ( 78 )   PDF (2574KB) ( 36 )   Save BACKGROUND: Medical magnesium alloys are widely used as surgical implants for osteosarcoma due to their excellent biocompatibility. However, magnesium alloys degrade rapidly in the human body, which limits their clinical application. Therefore, functional implant materials are urgently needed to solve the problems of surgical treatment of osteosarcoma and local bone function reconstruction. OBJECTIVE: To prepare a microarc oxidation coating containing Cu2+ on the surface of magnesium alloy and characterize the anti-tumor and angiogenesis-promoting effects of the material.  METHODS: (1) Magnesium alloy (the mass ratio of magnesium to zinc in the alloy is 94:6) was prepared by semi-solid powder molding technology. Microarc oxidation coatings containing Cu2+ were prepared on the surface of magnesium alloy using silicate containing copper acetate with different mass concentrations (0.26, 0.32, and 0.38 g/L) as electrolyte. The mass fraction of Cu2+ in the coating was 0.30%, 0.34%, and 0.69%, respectively. The morphology, thickness, microhardness and corrosion resistance of the coating were characterized. The magnesium alloy simply loaded with miroarc oxidation coating was used as the control. (2) The extract of control magnesium alloy and the extract of magnesium alloy loaded with microarc oxidation coating containing Cu2+ were mixed with rat arterial blood, and the hemolysis rate was detected. Rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells were inoculated on the surface of magnesium alloy loaded with microarc oxidation coating and magnesium alloy loaded with microarc oxidation coating containing Cu2+, and the cell adhesion was detected. Rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells were co-cultured with the extract of control magnesium alloy and the extract of magnesium alloy loaded with microarc oxidation coating containing Cu2+, and the cell proliferation rate was detected. (3) Rat osteosarcoma cells UMR-106 were co-cultured with the extract of control magnesium alloy and the extract of magnesium alloy loaded with microarc oxidation coating containing Cu2+, and the cell proliferation rate was detected. UMR-106 cells were inoculated on the surface of control magnesium alloy and magnesium alloy loaded with microarc oxidation coating containing Cu2+, and the cell adhesion was detected. The culture supernatant of UMR-106 cells was used as tumor conditioned medium. In the presence of (or without) tumor conditioned medium, rat vascular endothelial cells were co-cultured with extracts of control magnesium alloy and extracts of magnesium alloy loaded with microarc oxidation coating containing Cu2+, respectively, and the cell proliferation rate and angiogenesis were detected. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) Cu2+ reduced the porosity, pore size, and corrosion rate of the surface of magnesium alloy loaded with microarc oxidation coating, and increased the surface microhardness of magnesium alloy loaded with microarc oxidation coating. (2) CCK-8 assay results showed that when the mass fraction of Cu2+ in the coating was 0.30% and 0.34%, the relative proliferation rate of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells was greater than 80%, which met the implantation standard of biosafety materials. The hemolysis rate of magnesium alloy loaded with coating was less than 5%, which had good blood compatibility. With the increase of Cu2+ mass concentration in the coating, the number of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells adhered to the surface of magnesium alloy decreased. (3) With the increase of Cu2+ mass fraction in the coating, the relative proliferation rate and adhesion number of UMR-106 cells on the surface of magnesium alloy decreased. In the absence and addition of tumor conditioned medium, when the mass fraction of Cu2+ was 0.30% and 0.34%, the relative proliferation rate and angiogenesis ability of rat vascular endothelial cells on the surface of magnesium alloy were good. The results show that magnesium alloy loaded with microarc oxidation coating containing an appropriate amount of Cu2+ has good anti-tumor and pro-angiogenesis effects. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Zoledronic acid-loaded dissolvable microneedle patch inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced osteoclast differentiation Zhang Ye, An Zheqing, Xi Xin, Liu Xiaoyan, Hong Wei, Liao Jian 2026, 30 (20):  5115-5124.  doi: 10.12307/2026.343 Abstract ( 88 )   PDF (2905KB) ( 50 )   Save BACKGROUND: Zoledronic acid is an effective drug for treating bone resorption, but systemic use has relatively large side effects. Dissolvable microneedles is an efficient method of local transdermal drug delivery, which can effectively penetrate the mucosal barrier and deliver drugs locally to avoid drug side effects.  OBJECTIVE: To prepare a dissolvable microneedle patch loaded with zoledronic acid, and characterize their mechanical strength, penetrability, and effects on osteoclast differentiation. METHODS: Polyvinyl alcohol solution was used as the backing matrix, and hyaluronic acid solution or hyaluronic acid solutions containing varying concentrations of zoledronic acid (1, 5, and 10 mg/mL) as the microneedle tip matrix. Blank soluble microneedle patches and dissolvable microneedle patches loaded with zoledronic acid were prepared by a two-step casting method. The morphology and drug loading of the microneedles were characterized. Microneedles loaded with 10 mg/mL zoledronic acid were pressed into tinfoil or porcine gingival tissue to assess their penetration ability. Microneedles loaded with 10 mg/mL zoledronic acid were inserted into Parafilm M films, and the holes formed by the microneedles in each layer of Parafilm M were observed to assess their penetration depth. Microneedles loaded with 10 mg/mL zoledronic acid were inserted into porcine gingival tissue, and their dissolution was observed at different time points. Extracts of blank and 1 mg/mL zoledronic acid-loaded dissolvable microneedles were co-cultured with RAW264.7 cells. The biosafety of the microneedles was assessed using CCK-8 assay and live-dead staining. RAW264.7 cells were cultured in three groups: a blank group without any drug, a lipopolysaccharide group receiving 100 ng/mL lipopolysaccharide (to induce osteoclast differentiation), and a zoledronic acid microneedle group receiving both 100 ng/mL lipopolysaccharide and a 1 mg/mL zoledronic acid-loaded dissolvable microneedle extract. Osteoclast differentiation was analyzed by tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase staining and RT-qPCR. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) Optical microscopy revealed that the zoledronic acid-loaded soluble microneedles exhibited uniform structure, sharp tips, and a well-defined pyramidal morphology. The tips adhered tightly to the backing without defects or bubbles. The tip height was approximately 595 µm, and the distance between adjacent tips was approximately 495 µm. The drug loading of 1, 5, and 10 mg/mL zoledronic acid-soluble microneedles was (24.07±1.33), (203.4±9.14), and (576.74±9.46) µg, respectively, indicating that the drug loading of the microneedles could be controlled by adjusting the drug concentration in the microneedle matrix solution. (2) Microneedles inserted into tinfoil or porcine gingival tissue formed effective drug delivery micropores on the tissue surface. Microneedles inserted into Parafilm M membrane had a penetration depth of approximately 252 µm, demonstrating that the microneedles possess sufficient mechanical strength and tissue penetration properties to penetrate the mucosal barrier, form effective micropores, and deliver drug deep into the gingival tissue. (3) CCK-8 assay and live-dead staining revealed that both blank and zoledronic acid-loaded soluble microneedles showed no significant cytotoxicity. Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase staining and RT-qPCR assay showed that the number of osteoclasts and the mRNA expressions of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, c-Fos, matrix metalloproteinase-9, and cathepsin K were significantly higher in the lipopolysaccharide group than in the control group (P < 0.05). The number of osteoclasts and the mRNA expression levels of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, c-Fos, matrix metalloproteinase-9, and cathepsin K were significantly lower in the zoledronic acid microneedle group than in the lipopolysaccharide group (P < 0.05). This suggests that zoledronic acid-loaded dissolvable microneedles can effectively inhibit osteoclast differentiation under inflammatory conditions. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Influence of oral restorative material type and thickness on esthetic performance of all-ceramic restorations Wang Qiuyue, Fu Hongyu, Tian Yueming, Feng Yuchi 2026, 30 (20):  5125-5133.  doi: 10.12307/2026.159 Abstract ( 71 )   PDF (1742KB) ( 14 )   Save BACKGROUND: The selection of appropriate ceramic material is crucial for esthetic all-ceramic restorations. In studies of the esthetic performance of dental restorations, color difference and light transmittance are often used as evaluation indicators. Factors influencing the color difference and light transmittance of all-ceramic restorations primarily include the type of ceramic material, hue, thickness, processing technique, abutment color, and adhesive. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the impact of material type and thickness on the esthetic performance of all-ceramic restorations. METHODS: Six representative machinable ceramic materials (conventional zirconia ZR-ST, resin-based ceramic RC, high-transmittance zirconia ZR-TT, leucite-reinforced glass-ceramic LE, lithium disilicate glass-ceramic LD, and feldspathic ceramic FP) were selected. Rectangular ceramic specimens (10.0 mm × 12.5 mm) with thicknesses of 0.8, 1.0, and 1.5 mm were prepared from each material. After corresponding surface treatments, the specimens were bonded to resin specimens (representing abutments) to create ceramic-resin composite specimens. CIE L*a*b* values, color difference ΔE, and light transmittance were measured before and after bonding. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) When the abutment thickness does not reach infinite optical thickness, the type and thickness of ceramic material jointly influence the color and transmittance of the restoration. When the ceramic specimen thickness does not exceed 1.0 mm, the color after bonding to the resin sheet generally approaches blue-red. When the ceramic specimen thickness is 1.5 mm, the color after bonding to the resin sheet generally approaches blue-green, suggesting that color pre-compensation can be used to optimize esthetic matching when comparing all-ceramic restorations. (2) With the exception of the 1.5 mm thick ZR-ST ceramic, the color difference ΔE between the ceramic specimens and the resin sheet after bonding in all groups was less than 5. The color difference ΔE between the 0.8 mm ZR-ST ceramic specimen and the resin sheet was close to 3, and the color difference ΔE between the 1.0 mm ZR-TT ceramic specimen and the resin sheet was less than 3. This suggests that ZR-TT and ZR-ST ceramics may be potential options for minimally invasive restorations when the light transmittance of the affected tooth is low, the esthetic restoration space is limited, and high material strength is required. (3) The light transmittance of the ceramic specimen decreased after bonding and diminished significantly with increasing ceramic thickness. The RC ceramic specimen had a high light transmittance, and the color difference ΔE between the specimen and the resin sheet after bonding was close to 3, indicating excellent optical performance. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane electrospinning membrane promotes bone defect repair Zhou Xiaohui, Wang Siyi, Zhou Qiyun, He Zhao, Jia Yujuan, Wang Yuanbin, Ma Jianwu, Chen Gang, Zheng Feng, Chu Genglei 2026, 30 (20):  5134-5142.  doi: 10.12307/2026.659 Abstract ( 65 )   PDF (8326KB) ( 14 )   Save BACKGROUND: Compared with other bone repair materials, electrospun membranes have good cell compatibility and mechanical strength. This series of advantages expands its application potential in drug delivery and tissue engineering.  OBJECTIVE: To prepare nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane electrospun membranes and evaluate the in vitro and in vivo bioactivity of electrospun membranes. METHODS: (1) Polyether carbonate urethane and nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane electrospun membranes were prepared by electrospinning machine, and the microscopic morphology and water contact angle of the two electrospun membranes were characterized. Rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells were co-cultured with polyether carbonate urethane and nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane electrospun membranes, respectively. Cells cultured alone were used as controls. CCK-8 assay, live-dead staining, skeleton staining and EdU staining were performed respectively. After osteogenic induction, alkaline phosphatase staining and alizarin red staining were performed respectively. (2) Twenty-seven SD rats were randomly divided into three groups. The control group (n=9) constructed a full-thickness skull defect with a diameter of 5 mm and did not receive any treatment. The polyether carbonate urethane group (n=9) and nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane group (n=9) constructed a full-thickness skull defect with a diameter of 5 mm and then implanted polyether carbonate urethane-rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell scaffold and nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane-rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell scaffold, respectively. Eight weeks after surgery, skull Micro-CT analysis, hematoxylin-eosin staining, and Masson staining were performed, respectively. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) Scanning electron microscopy showed that both electrospun membranes showed uniform fiber structure and smooth fiber surface, and the nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane electrospun membrane had a larger fiber diameter and more dispersed arrangement. There was no significant difference in the water contact angles of the two electrospun membranes, and both had good hydrophilicity. The results of CCK-8 assay and EdU staining showed that both electrospinning membranes could promote the proliferation of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, and the promoting effect of nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane electrospinning membrane was more obvious. Live-dead staining and skeleton staining showed that rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells had good morphology and high activity on the two electrospinning membranes. The results of alkaline phosphatase and alizarin red staining showed that both electrospinning membranes could promote the osteogenic differentiation of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, and the promoting effect of nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urea electrospinning membrane was more obvious. (2) Micro-CT analysis results showed that both electrospinning membranes could promote the repair of rat skull defects, and the promoting effect of nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane electrospinning membrane was more obvious. Hematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining results showed that compared with the control group, more new bone mass was observed in the bone defects of the polyether carbonate urethane group and the nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane group, and the bone repair effect of the nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane group was better. (3) The results show that the nanohydroxyapatite-polyether carbonate urethane electrospinning membrane has good fiber structure and biocompatibility, and can promote the proliferation, osteogenic differentiation, and repair of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells.  Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Nanohydroxyapatite induces immunogenic cell death in tumors Li Shu, Zhao Zhengyi, Zeng Qin, Zhu Xiangdong 2026, 30 (20):  5143-5151.  doi: 10.12307/2026.306 Abstract ( 87 )   PDF (1642KB) ( 18 )   Save BACKGROUND: Recent studies have shown that nanohydroxyapatite has shown potential value in the field of anti-tumor. It can selectively kill tumor cells and has no obvious toxicity to normal cells, but the anti-tumor mechanism of nanohydroxyapatite is not yet fully understood. OBJECTIVE: To explore the ability of nanohydroxyapatite to induce immunogenic cell death in tumor cells in vitro. METHODS: Nanohydroxyapatite was synthesized by chemical precipitation method. The phase, functional group, and morphology of nanohydroxyapatite were characterized by X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The surface charge of nanohydroxyapatite in PBS (pH=7.4) was measured by Malvern particle size analyzer. Nanohydroxyapatite suspensions with different mass concentrations and doxorubicin solutions were co-cultured with L929 mouse fibroblasts (or melanoma cells B16). Cell viability was detected by CCK-8 assay. B16 cells were divided into four groups and treated with PBS, 100 μg/mL nanohydroxyapatite suspension, 500 μg/mL nanohydroxyapatite suspension, and 1 μg/mL doxorubicin solution, respectively. The exposure of calreticulin and the levels of high-mobility group protein B1 and adenosine triphosphate in the cell supernatant were detected. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that nanohydroxyapatite had high phase purity and good crystallinity. Under transmission electron microscopy, nanohydroxyapatite showed a uniform rod-like structure with a length of 70-90 nm, a width of 10-20 nm, and a regular morphology. The potential of nanohydroxyapatite was (-12.83±2.04) mV. (2) CCK-8 assay results showed that 100, 500, and 2 000 μg/mL nanohydroxyapatite suspensions did not significantly affect the viability of L929 fibroblasts, while 0.1 and 1 μg/mL doxorubicin solutions significantly reduced the viability of L929 fibroblasts. 0.1 and 1 μg/mL doxorubicin solutions and 100, 500, and 2 000 μg/mL nanohydroxyapatite suspensions could reduce the viability of B16 cells. The effect of nanohydroxyapatite suspension on B16 cell viability was weaker than that of doxorubicin. (3) Immunofluorescence staining results showed that the expression of calreticulin in the 500 μg/mL nanohydroxyapatite group was higher than that in the PBS group and doxorubicin group (P < 0.05). There was no significant difference in the level of high mobility group protein B1 among the four groups (P > 0.05). The level of adenosine triphosphate in the doxorubicin group was higher than that in the PBS group (P < 0.05). (4) The results show that nanohydroxyapatite may be a potential safe and effective immunogenic cell death inducer. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Sandwich-like nanofiber membrane loaded with salidroside regulates macrophage polarization and promotes angiogenesis in diabetic wounds Zheng Hao, Zhou Tianqi, Pan Jiazhaо, He Jialin, Zou Zihao, Teng Jianxiang, Xie Mengli, Yang Long, Tian Xiaobin 2026, 30 (20):  5152-5166.  doi: 10.12307/2026.363 Abstract ( 90 )   PDF (5497KB) ( 41 )   Save BACKGROUND: Salidroside, with its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and pro-angiogenic properties, has shown potential in the treatment of various diseases. However, its application in diabetic wound healing remains to be further explored.  OBJECTIVE: To explore the effectiveness of a three-layer nanofiber membrane containing salidroside on repairing diabetic skin wounds. METHODS: (1) Electrospun polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol-polyvinyl alcohol and polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol membranes were prepared and characterized for their morphology, water contact angle, tensile elastic modulus, and sustained drug release properties. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells were co-cultured with the two membranes, and their biocompatibility was analyzed by cell adhesion and live-dead staining. (2) Logarithmic-phase mouse mononuclear phagocyte leukemia cell line (RAW264.7) cells were treated with 1 μg/mL lipopolysaccharide. After 24 hours, the cell supernatant was collected and mixed with DMEM high-glucose medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum as conditioned medium. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells were cultured in three groups: a control group without any materials, and the other two groups co-cultured with polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membranes and polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membranes, respectively. Conditioned medium was added to induce an inflammatory response, and cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation were measured. (3) RAW264.7 cells were treated with 1 μg/mL lipopolysaccharide (inducing inflammatory response) for 24 hours and then divided into three groups: a control group without any materials, and the other two groups co-cultured with polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol-polyvinyl alcohol membranes and polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol membranes, respectively. Intracellular nitric oxide levels and CD206 and interleukin-1β mRNA expressions were measured. (4) Twenty-four C57 mice were used to establish a diabetic model by high-fat and high-glucose feeding combined with intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. Three weeks after modeling, a circular full-thickness skin defect with a diameter of 8 mm was made on the back of the mice. The mice were randomly divided into three intervention groups: the blank group (n=8) was not implanted with any material; the control group (n=8) and the experimental group (n=8) were implanted with polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membrane and polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membrane, respectively. The wound healing was observed, and hematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining and immunohistochemical staining of CD206 and vascular endothelial growth factor were performed on the wound skin tissue at the set time points. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membrane exhibited a three-layer structure, with randomly arranged fibers in each layer interconnected to form a porous structure. The water contact angle of the polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membrane was smaller than that of the polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membrane (P < 0.05), and there was no significant difference in the tensile elastic modulus between the two groups of membranes. The polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membrane exhibited excellent drug release properties. Both membranes exhibited excellent biocompatibility and effectively supported cell growth and survival. (2) Under inflammatory response, compared with the control group, polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol-polyvinyl alcohol electrospinning membrane, polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol electrospinning membrane could promote the proliferation, migration and tube formation ability of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. (3) Under inflammatory conditions, compared with the control group, polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol-polyvinyl alcohol membranes, polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membranes reduced intracellular nitric oxide levels and interleukin-1β mRNA expression, and increased CD206 mRNA expression, indicating that polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membranes could effectively promote macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype and exert an anti-inflammatory effect. (4) Animal experiments showed that polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membranes promoted diabetic wound healing compared with control and polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membranes. Hematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining revealed more significant angiogenesis and complete collagen fiber maturation in the skin samples of the experimental group. Immunohistochemical staining results showed that polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol/salidroside-polyvinyl alcohol electrospun membrane significantly promoted the macrophage polarization and angiogenesis toward M2 by upregulating the expression of CD206 and vascular endothelial growth factor. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Construction and osteogenic activity of titanium dioxide nanotube and polydopamine composite coating on titanium implants Sun Danhe, Guo Xiaoling, Zhao Lingzhou 2026, 30 (20):  5167-5177.  doi: 10.12307/2026.331 Abstract ( 94 )   PDF (3931KB) ( 23 )   Save BACKGROUND: Titanium and its alloy are widely used in the field of oral implant and bone defect repair with its good mechanical properties and biocompatibility. However, insufficient osseobinding efficacy due to biological inertia of material surfaces remains a key clinical problem restricting their long-term stability. Therefore, it is particularly important to improve the osteogenic activity of titanium through surface modification. OBJECTIVE: To explore the in vitro osteogenic properties of titanium surface titanium dioxide nanotubes and polydopamine composite coating. METHODS: Titanium dioxide nanotube arrays were constructed on the surface of medical pure titanium by anodic oxidation, which was recorded as nanotube group. The nanotube samples were immersed in hydrochloric acid dopamine solution to construct polydopamine functional layer, which was recorded as nanotube-polydopamine group. The surface morphology, surface roughness, and water contact angle of the pure titanium group, nanotube group, and nanotube-polydopamine group were detected. Passage 3 rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells were inoculated on the surface of the three groups of samples. CCK-8 assay, live/dead fluorescence staining, and scanning electron microscopy were performed. After osteogenic induction culture, alkaline phosphatase staining and Alizarin Red S staining were performed.  RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) Scanning electron microscopy showed that the surface of the pure titanium group was relatively flat. The surface of the nanotube group formed a highly ordered titanium dioxide nanotube array structure, and the surface of the nanotubes of the nanotube-polydopamine group was deposited with a polydopamine coating. There was no significant difference in the surface roughness of the three groups of samples (P > 0.05). The water contact angle of the nanotube group was smaller than that of the pure titanium group and the nanotube-polydopamine group (P < 0.05), and the water contact angle of the nanotube-polydopamine group was smaller than that of the pure titanium group (P < 0.05). (2) CCK-8 assay and live/dead fluorescence staining results showed that samples from the pure titanium group, nanotube group, and nanotube-polydopamine group all had good biocompatibility and no obvious cytotoxicity. Scanning electron microscopy showed that compared with the pure titanium group and the nanotube group, the nanotube-polydopamine group promoted the extension and cell-to-cell adhesion of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. (3) The results of alkaline phosphatase staining showed that the alkaline phosphatase activity of the nanotube-polydopamine group was higher than that of the pure titanium group and the nanotube group (P < 0.05). The results of Alizarin Red S staining showed that the extracellular matrix mineralization level of the nanotube-polydopamine group was stronger than that of the pure titanium group and the nanotube group (P < 0.05). The results show that titanium modified with titanium dioxide nanotube-polydopamine composite coating on the surface of pure titanium can effectively promote the osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells.  Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Silk fibroin hydrogel loaded with icariin to promote tendon-bone healing Zhan Lei, Wu Lina, Li Huan, Liu Min, Chen Tao, Pu Xiaobing, Zhou Changchun 2026, 30 (20):  5178-5787.  doi: 10.12307/2026.303 Abstract ( 81 )   PDF (8826KB) ( 15 )   Save BACKGROUND: Traditional Chinese medicine-loaded bioscaffolds have been a hot topic and difficulty in recent years. The construction of drug-loaded composite bioscaffold materials provides new ideas and methods for tendon-bone healing. OBJECTIVE: To explore the role of icariin/hydroxyapatite/methacrylylated silk fibroin hydrogel in promoting tendon-bone healing. METHODS: (1) Methacrylylated silk fibroin hydrogel (denoted as S hydrogel), hydroxyapatite/methacrylylated silk fibroin hydrogel (denoted as S-H hydrogel) and icariin/hydroxyapatite/methacrylylated silk fibroin hydrogel (denoted as S-H-I hydrogel) were prepared respectively, and the microscopic morphology, physicochemical properties and in vitro drug release properties of the hydrogels were characterized. (2) MC3T3-E1 cells were inoculated on the surfaces of the above three hydrogels, and cell proliferation and activity were detected by CCK-8 assay and live-dead staining. Cell morphology was observed by cytoskeleton staining, and alkaline phosphatase staining and alizarin red staining were performed after osteogenic induction. (3) Eighteen New Zealand rabbits were selected, and the native anterior cruciate ligament was cut along the starting and ending points of the left femur and tibia to construct a tendon-bone injury model. A bone tunnel with a diameter of 3 mm and a length of 10 mm was made along the starting and ending points of the anterior cruciate ligament. The rabbits were randomly divided into three intervention groups: the blank control group (n=6) did not implant any material in the bone tunnel, the control group (n=6) implanted S-H hydrogel in the bone tunnel, and the experimental group (n=6) implanted S-H-I hydrogel in the bone tunnel. The samples were collected 4 and 8 weeks after surgery and stained with hematoxylin-eosin and Msaaon, respectively. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) The hydrogels in the three groups all had loose porous structures and similar microscopic morphologies. The pore size of S hydrogel was the largest, and the pore size of S-H-I hydrogel was the smallest. The hydrogels in the three groups all showed the characteristics of swelling and degradation that was fast first and then slow. The compression modulus of S was the largest, and the compression modulus of S-H hydrogel was the lowest. The icariin in S-H-I hydrogel showed the characteristics of initial rapid release and later slow release. (2) CCK-8 assay and live-dead staining showed that S-H-I hydrogel could promote the proliferation of MC3T3-E1 cells and maintain cell activity. Cytoskeleton staining showed that the S-H-I group had the highest cell density, complete and clear skeleton structure, and interconnected cells; alkaline phosphatase staining and alizarin red staining showed that S-H-I hydrogel had the strongest osteogenic ability. (3) Hematoxylin-eosin staining and Msaaon staining showed that compared with S-H hydrogel, S-H-I hydrogel could further promote the orderly arrangement and tissue construction of cells in the tendon-bone injury site, reduce inflammatory cell infiltration, and promote collagen fiber maturation and orderly arrangement. (4) The results showed that icariin/hydroxyapatite/silk fibroin hydrogel had good mechanical properties, biocompatibility and osteogenic induction ability, and could promote tendon-bone healing. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Repair of infected bone defect with dual-ion time-sequenced release multifunctional hydrogels Chen Weifei, Mei Yuandong, Ju Jihui 2026, 30 (20):  5188-5200.  doi: 10.12307/2026.690 Abstract ( 105 )   PDF (2442KB) ( 86 )   Save BACKGROUND: The development of time-sequenced functional biomaterials that can effectively inhibit bacteria early and promote bone regeneration later is key to solving the treatment challenges of infected bone defects.  OBJECTIVE: To construct a dual-ion time-sequenced release multifunctional hydrogel and evaluate its antibacterial and bone regeneration-promoting properties.  METHODS: (1) Strontium-containing mesoporous bioglass was synthesized using a surfactant template method, and sulfohyaluronic acid was prepared via metal-ligand coordination crosslinking. Sulfohyaluronic acid was dissolved in deionized water, and the strontium-containing mesoporous bioglass was added dropwise. After mixing thoroughly, silver nitrate solution was slowly added dropwise and stirred for 15 minutes to obtain a multifunctional hydrogel with a timed release of dual ions (denoted as SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogel). The micromorphology, sustained release of Sr2+ and Ag+, and swelling properties of the SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogel were characterized. (2) Staphylococcus aureus or Escherichia coli were co-cultured with SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogels, hyaluronic acid hydrogels, sulfo-hyaluronic acid hydrogels, and Ag+-loaded sulfo-hyaluronic acid hydrogels, respectively. Bacterial plating experiments were used to evaluate the antibacterial properties of the hydrogels, using bacteria cultured alone as controls. (3) Rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells were co-cultured with SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogels, hyaluronic acid hydrogels, sulfo-hyaluronic acid hydrogels, and Ag+-loaded sulfo-hyaluronic acid hydrogels, respectively. Cells cultured alone served as controls. After osteogenic induction, the cytocompatibility of the hydrogels was evaluated by live/dead staining, and the osteogenic properties of the hydrogels were evaluated by alkaline phosphatase staining, Alizarin red staining, and expression of osteogenesis-related genes. (4) Circular bone defects with a diameter of 2 mm penetrating the cortical bone were created on the medial side of the femoral condyle in 40 SD rats. The rats were randomly divided into four intervention groups. The normal control group (n=10) received no infection treatment. The model group (n=10) received a Staphylococcus aureus suspension injected into the bone defect to simulate infection. The control group (n=10) received a Staphylococcus aureus suspension injected into the bone defect followed by an Ag+-loaded sulfo-hyaluronic acid hydrogel. The experimental group (n=10) received a Staphylococcus aureus suspension injected into the bone defect followed by an SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogel. Samples were obtained 4 and 12 weeks after surgery and subjected to micro-CT, hematoxylin-eosin, Masson, and Giemsa staining, respectively. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogels exhibited a well-defined three-dimensional porous structure and excellent swelling properties. Ion release experiments showed that Ag+ was released rapidly in the early stages of the SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogels and gradually stabilized after 3 days. Sr2+ was released more slowly, beginning gradually after 7 days, demonstrating the dual-ion sequential release and antibacterial and bone regeneration-promoting properties. (2) SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogels and Ag+-loaded sulfo-hyaluronic acid hydrogels significantly inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, whereas hyaluronic acid hydrogels and sulfo-hyaluronic acid hydrogels showed no significant antibacterial effect. (3) Live/dead staining revealed no significant cytotoxicity in the four groups. Alkaline phosphatase and Alizarin red staining, as well as osteogenesis-related gene expression assay demonstrated that SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogels promoted the osteogenic differentiation of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. (4) Micro-CT examination showed that the SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogel effectively promoted bone regeneration in infected bone defects of rats compared with the other three groups. Hematoxylin-eosin staining, Masson staining, and Giemsa staining demonstrated that the SHA-Ag/SBG hydrogel exhibited excellent antibacterial activity and significantly promoted bone tissue recovery. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Puerarin-loaded injectable double-network hydrogel for promoting skin wound healing Yao Yinxuan, Wen Suru, Chen Chaosheng, Wen Xin, Feng Keying, Kuang Zaoyuan, Zhang Wen 2026, 30 (20):  5201-5213.  doi: 10.12307/2026.154 Abstract ( 130 )   PDF (5058KB) ( 25 )   Save BACKGROUND: As a new type of dressing developed based on the theory of moist healing, hydrogel provides a suitable humidity environment for the wound surface, sufficient space and mechanical support for cell migration and tissue regeneration, and can also be used as a carrier of drugs, growth factors, cells, and nanoparticles. It is widely used in the biomedical field. Puerarin has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and angiogenic effects, but its lipid solubility and water solubility are poor, which limits its clinical application. OBJECTIVE: To prepare a puerarin-loaded double-network hydrogel and evaluate its effects on cellular behavior and wound healing in animal models. METHODS: (1) Puerarin solution (0.5 mg/mL) was added to carboxymethyl chitosan-phenylboronic acid solution to prepare single-network sodium alginate-furan/bismaleimide hydrogel and carboxymethyl chitosan-phenylboronic acid-epigallocatechin gallate hydrogel, respectively. The two single-network hydrogels were mixed according to different volume ratios of the raw materials to prepare double-network hydrogel loaded with puerarin. In the H0 hydrogel without puerarin, the volume ratio of sodium alginate-furan, carboxymethyl chitosan-phenylboronic acid, epigallocatechin gallate and maleimide-maleimide was 25:40:8:3. In the puerarin-loaded H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5 hydrogels, the volume ratios of sodium alginate-furan, carboxymethyl chitosan-phenylboronic acid (containing puerarin), epigallocatechin gallate and maleimide-maleimide were 25:30:6:3, 25:40:8:3, 25:50:10:3, 25:60:12:3, and 25:70:14:3, respectively. The micromorphology, mechanical properties, adhesion, swelling properties, degradation properties, and drug release properties of the hydrogels were characterized, and the inhibitory effect of the hydrogels on Escherichia coli and the effects of the hydrogels on the proliferation and migration of L929 cells were detected. (2) A circular full-thickness skin defect with a diameter of 1 cm on the back of 9 SD rats was made. Three wounds were made on each rat. The wounds of the control group (n=3) were injected with normal saline; the wounds of the H0 group (n=3) were injected with H0 hydrogel, and the wounds of the H3 group (n=3) were injected with H3 hydrogel. The wound healing was observed. The wounds were collected 3 and 7 days after the wound modeling. Hematoxylin-eosin staining, Masson staining, and CD31 immunohistochemical staining were performed respectively. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) The double-network hydrogel loaded with puerarin could gel. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the hydrogel had dense micropores, a large number of pores, and a small pore size. It had injectability, tissue adhesion and mechanical properties. The double-network hydrogel loaded with puerarin had strong water absorption capacity, slow degradation rate, could maintain the stability of morphology and volume, was responsive to pH and glucose, and could stably release the puerarin loaded therein. The double-network hydrogel loaded with puerarin could promote the proliferation and migration of L929 cells and inhibit the growth and reproduction of Escherichia coli. (2) Compared with the control group and H0 group, the wound healing rate of the H3 group was faster, and the wound healing rate was as high as 70% 7 days after modeling. The results of hematoxylin-eosin staining, Masson staining, and CD31 immunohistochemical staining 7 days after modeling showed that the wounds of the H3 group had the most granulation tissue growth, collagen accumulation and angiogenesis compared with the control group and H0 group. (3) The results showed that the double-network hydrogel loaded with puerarin had good biocompatibility and drug release properties, which could promote the growth and migration of L929 cells and the healing of full-thickness skin defects in rats. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Vancomycin-containing porcine skin acellular extracellular matrix hydrogel promotes wound healing in skin infections Xu Yixuan, Yao Jun, Liu Xulu, Li Xinlian, Liu Zhixiong, Zhang Zhihong 2026, 30 (20):  5214-5228.  doi: 10.12307/2026.691 Abstract ( 71 )   PDF (5394KB) ( 33 )   Save BACKGROUND: Clinically, drugs such as povidone-iodine cream and fusidic acid cream are commonly used to control infection in infected skin wounds, but regulation of the wound microenvironment, such as inflammation, is neglected. Therefore, it is necessary to develop biomaterials that are effective in antibacterial and can modulate inflammation to promote skin healing. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties of the vancomycin-porcine acellular extracellular matrix hydrogel, as well as its therapeutic effects on the healing of infected skin wounds. METHODS: (1) Porcine skin acellular extracellular matrix hydrogels containing 0, 1, 2, and 4 mg/mL vancomycin were prepared and designated PAEH, VA-PAEH1, VA-PAEH2, and VA-PAEH4, respectively. The drug encapsulation efficiency and drug release properties of each hydrogel were tested in each group. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (NIH-3T3) were co-cultured with the four groups of hydrogel extracts. The cytotoxicity of the hydrogels was assessed by live-dead staining. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (NIH-3T3) were co-cultured with the four groups of hydrogel extracts. Cell viability was assessed by CCK-8 assay. The four groups of hydrogels were co-cultured with rat red blood cell suspensions to detect the hemolysis rate. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was co-cultured with the four groups of hydrogels to detect the antibacterial properties of the hydrogels. Based on the above experimental results, the VA-PAEH1 hydrogel with excellent performance was screened for subsequent experiments. The micromorphology, swelling properties, degradation properties and rheological properties of the VA-PAEH1 hydrogel were characterized. (2) PAEH hydrogel, VA-PAEH1 hydrogel, and chitosan hydrogel were co-cultured with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (or Escherichia coli) respectively. The antibacterial properties of the hydrogels were evaluated by agar plate coating test, inhibition zone test, and scanning electron microscopy. Mouse mononuclear macrophage RAW264.7 cells were cultured in five groups. A blank group received no treatment. A control group received lipopolysaccharide to induce an inflammatory response. The remaining three groups received lipopolysaccharide for 24 hours followed by the addition of PAEH hydrogel, chitosan hydrogel, and VA-PAEH1 hydrogel, respectively. After an additional 24 hours of culture, immunofluorescence staining for CD86 (a marker of M1 macrophages) and CD206 (a marker of M2 macrophages) was performed. PAEH hydrogels, chitosan hydrogels, and VA-PAEH1 hydrogels were co-cultured with mouse embryonic fibroblasts NIH-3T3 cells in a non-contact manner. Cell proliferation was assessed by EdU staining. Cell migration was assessed by wound healing assay and Transwell assay. (3) A 12 mm diameter full-thickness skin defect was created on the back of 28 SD rats. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus solution was then dripped onto the rats to simulate infection. The rats were randomly divided into four intervention groups. A control group (n=7) received normal saline injection, while the PAEH group (n=7), chitosan hydrogel group (n=7), and VA-PAEH1 group (n=7) received injections of the corresponding hydrogels. Wound healing was observed. Skulls were harvested 14 days postoperatively for hematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining, and 3 days postoperatively for myeloperoxidase and CD206 immunohistochemical staining. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) The drug encapsulation efficiencies of VA-PAEH1, VA-PAEH2, and VA-PAEH4 hydrogels were 98.34%, 98.15%, and 97.68%, respectively. All three kinds of hydrogels exhibited good sustained drug release, but the cumulative drug release from the VA-PAEH2 and VA-PAEH4 hydrogel might pose a safety risk. CCK-8 assay and live/dead staining revealed that PAEH and VA-PAEH1 hydrogels exhibited no significant cytotoxicity and demonstrated good cytocompatibility. Hemolysis assay revealed that the hemolysis rates of PAEH and VA-PAEH1 hydrogels were within a safe range, demonstrating good hemocompatibility. VA-PAEH1, VA-PAEH2, and VA-PAEH4 all exhibited excellent antibacterial properties. VA-PAEH1 hydrogels were composed of interwoven fibers and exhibited excellent swelling, degradation, and rheological properties. (2) Agar plate coating experiments, inhibition zone assays, and scanning electron microscopy revealed that VA-PAEH1 hydrogels effectively inhibited the growth and reproduction of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli compared with PAEH and chitosan hydrogels. Compared with chitosan hydrogels, PAEH and VA-PAEH1 hydrogels promoted the transformation of macrophages from the M1 to M2 phenotype, demonstrating excellent anti-inflammatory properties. Compared with chitosan hydrogels, PAEH and VA-PAEH1 hydrogels promoted NIH-3T3 cell proliferation and migration. (3) Compared with the other three groups, the VA-PAEH1 group showed the fastest wound healing. Hematoxylin-eosin and Masson staining revealed that the VA-PAEH1 group had less inflammatory cell infiltration, denser collagen tissue, and the highest wound healing quality. Myeloperoxidase immunohistochemical staining showed that VA-PAEH1 hydrogel significantly reduced bacterial-induced inflammatory cell infiltration compared with PAEH and chitosan hydrogels. CD206 immunohistochemical staining showed that VA-PAEH1 hydrogel increased the proportion of M2 macrophages compared with PAEH and chitosan hydrogels, promoting wound healing.  Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Preparation and antibacterial properties of composite hydrogels with photothermal effects Cui Jie, Liao Ruohan, Zhang Chengdong, Li Xingping, Chi Feng, Luo Xuwei, Pu Chao, Zhang Bo, Xiao Dongqin 2026, 30 (20):  5229-5242.  doi: 10.12307/2026.157 Abstract ( 85 )   PDF (29172KB) ( 37 )   Save BACKGROUND: As a high-water-content polymer similar to extracellular matrix, hydrogels are widely used in various tissue repairs due to their excellent biocompatibility. However, pure hydrogels are difficult to meet the complex clinical situations, such as bacterial infection and slow tissue regeneration rate. Therefore, it is necessary to develop bio-functional composite hydrogels. OBJECTIVE: To develop a methacrylated gelatin/MXene/calcium peroxide hydrogel with high antibacterial properties and evaluate its photothermal effect and antibacterial properties in vitro. METHODS: (1) Methacrylated gelatin solutions, methacrylated gelatin solutions containing 300 μg/mL MXene, methacrylated gelatin solutions containing 5 mg/mL calcium peroxide, and methacrylated gelatin solutions containing 300 μg/mL MXene and 5 mg/mL calcium peroxide were prepared. After adding a photoinitiator, the solutions were cured under 365 nm ultraviolet light for 5 minutes. Methacrylated gelatin hydrogels (G hydrogel), methacrylated gelatin/300 μg/mL MXene hydrogel (GX hydrogel), methacrylated gelatin/calcium peroxide hydrogel (GC hydrogel), and methacrylated gelatin/MXene/calcium peroxide hydrogel (GXC hydrogel) were obtained. The surface morphology and photothermal properties of the four hydrogels were characterized. The GC and GXC hydrogels were immersed in PBS and incubated with vibration to measure Ca2+ release. (2) Staphylococcus aureus suspensions were co-cultured in each of the four hydrogel groups. A single culture of the bacteria served as a control. The hydrogels were irradiated with a near-infrared laser (808 nm, 1.5 W/cm²) for 5 minutes (or without near-infrared laser irradiation). The antibacterial properties of the hydrogels were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy, plate spread assay, live/dead staining, 5-cyano-2,3-ditolyl tetrazolium chloride (CTC) staining, and reactive oxygen species staining. (3) The four hydrogel groups were co-incubated with rat erythrocyte suspensions to measure hemolysis rates. The four hydrogel groups were co-cultured with osteoblast precursor cells MC3T3-E1 (or mouse fibroblast L929). Cell viability was assessed using CCK-8 assay and cell viability was assessed using live/dead staining. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) Scanning electron microscopy revealed that all four hydrogel groups had a loose porous structure. The pore surfaces of the G and GX hydrogels were smoother, while those of the GC and GXC hydrogels were rougher. After near-infrared laser irradiation, the GX and GXC hydrogels exhibited excellent photothermal performance and stability, meeting the requirements of subsequent photothermal antibacterial applications. Both GC and GXC hydrogels were able to slowly release Ca2+ for up to 20 days. (2) Scanning electron microscopy, plate coating assay, live/dead staining, CTC staining, and reactive oxygen species staining revealed that the GC and GXC hydrogels exhibited excellent antibacterial properties without infrared laser irradiation. After near-infrared laser irradiation, the GX, GC, and GXC hydrogels exhibited excellent antibacterial properties, with the antibacterial properties of the GX and GXC hydrogels significantly enhanced compared to those without infrared laser irradiation. (3) The hemolysis rates of all four hydrogel groups were less than 5%, demonstrating excellent hemocompatibility. Live/dead staining and CCK-8 assay revealed that the four groups did not significantly affect the viability and activity of MC3T3-E1 and L929 cells, demonstrating good cytocompatibility. (4) These results demonstrate that the methacrylated gelatin/MXene/calcium peroxide hydrogel exhibits excellent antibacterial properties and biocompatibility. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Physicochemical properties and in vitro biological effects of resveratrol-eluting stents Li Keyun, Yang Yuqi, Fei Yingying, Huang Shuai 2026, 30 (20):  5243-5256.  doi: 10.12307/2026.158 Abstract ( 86 )   PDF (9420KB) ( 19 )   Save BACKGROUND: Although conventional drug-eluting stents have become the mainstream choice for interventional treatment of coronary atherosclerotic heart disease, they still suffer from delayed endothelial repair, the risk of late thrombosis, and chronic inflammatory responses. Therefore, the development of novel drug-eluting stents with selective cell-modulating properties and biodegradable carriers has become an urgent research need. OBJECTIVE: To prepare a 316L stainless steel stent loaded with a resveratrol-eluting coating and systematically investigate the coating's physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and therapeutic efficacy against atherosclerotic lesions.  METHODS: (1) Resveratrol and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) solutions with a mass ratio of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% were prepared on 316L stainless steel sheets by evaporation deposition. Resveratrol elution coatings with mass fractions of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% were prepared. The water contact angle, blood compatibility, antioxidant properties, and effects on the growth behavior of human umbilical vein endothelial cells, human aortic smooth muscle cells, and macrophages of the five coatings were characterized. The drug release kinetics and mechanical properties of the 30% resveratrol elution coating were also characterized. Macrophages were seeded on the surfaces of 316L stainless steel sheets, 316L stainless steel sheets loaded with poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) coating, and 316L stainless steel sheets loaded with 30% resveratrol elution coating, respectively. Lipopolysaccharide-stimulating factor was added to establish an atherosclerosis model. Immunofluorescence staining was used to detect the expression of CD206 (anti-inflammatory macrophages) and CD86 (pro-inflammatory macrophages). (2) Solutions of resveratrol and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) copolymer at 0% and 30% mass ratios, respectively, were prepared as spray solutions. Ultrasonic atomization spraying was used to prepare 0% and 30% resveratrol-eluted coatings on 316L stainless steel stents. The mechanical properties of the coatings were evaluated by balloon expansion experiments. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: (1) The water contact angles of the coated 316L stainless steel sheets were greater than those of the original 316L stainless steel sheets. The water contact angles of the stainless-steel sheets decreased with increasing resveratrol mass fraction in the coatings. Both the 316L stainless steel sheets and the coated 316L stainless steel sheets exhibited low hemolysis rates (< 5%). In vitro platelet adhesion and activation experiments demonstrated that the resveratrol-eluted coatings effectively inhibited platelet adhesion and activation, with the 30% and 40% resveratrol-eluted coatings exhibiting more significant effects. The resveratrol-eluted coatings inhibited the release of reactive oxygen species from macrophages, exerting antioxidant properties. Resveratrol-eluting coatings promoted the proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells and inhibited the proliferation of human aortic smooth muscle cells and macrophages. The effects were more pronounced with 30% and 40% resveratrol-eluting coatings. Therefore, the 30% resveratrol-eluting coating was selected for subsequent experiments. The resveratrol-eluting coating achieved stable, controlled drug release for at least 30 days. Immunofluorescence staining demonstrated that the resveratrol-eluting coating promoted the transformation of macrophages to an anti-inflammatory phenotype. (2) After balloon expansion, the resveratrol-eluting coating on the stainless-steel stent exhibited no delamination or crack propagation, demonstrating excellent mechanical properties.  Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Preparation, classification and application of polysaccharide-based hydrogels in skin damage repair Cao Yuqing, Guo Meiling, Liu Feng, Wei Junchao 2026, 30 (20):  5257-5269.  doi: 10.12307/2026.671 Abstract ( 119 )   PDF (2951KB) ( 47 )   Save BACKGROUND: The development of multifunctional bioactive smart dressings based on the wound microenvironment for real-time monitoring of wound microenvironment is an important strategy to accelerate wound healing. Polysaccharide-based hydrogels have gained wide attention in the field of wound dressings due to their unique advantages. OBJECTIVE: To review the synthesis methods, functional properties and application progress of polysaccharide-based hydrogels in skin injury repair.  METHODS: Chinese databases, such as WanFang and CNKI, were searched and English databases, including PubMed and Web of Science, were searched using search terms “hydrogels, polysaccharide, reversible covalent bonds, wound dressings, wound repair.” According to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 125 articles were finally included for review.  RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The crosslinking methods of polysaccharide-based hydrogels can be categorized into physical and chemical crosslinking. Among these, dynamic chemical bonds are particularly significant for the development of bioactive smart dressings, as they can respond to certain stimuli. Polysaccharides are rich in functional groups such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, and amine groups, which can be easily grafted or modified to meet the functional requirements for clinical applications, such as smart antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties, without causing adverse effects. With the continuous diversification and refinement of clinical needs, the functionality of hydrogel dressings has evolved from a simple protective covering to a combination of multiple functions, including adhesion and hemostasis, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, drug delivery, self-repair, stimulus response, and wound monitoring.  Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Recruitable tissue repair biomaterials: advantages of regulating cell and factor migration and improving tissue integration Diao Youlu, Gao Jia, Pan Guoqing 2026, 30 (20):  5270-5281.  doi: 10.12307/2026.149 Abstract ( 124 )   PDF (2505KB) ( 52 )   Save BACKGROUND: Recruitable tissue repair biomaterials promote the application of regenerative medicine by precisely regulating cell migration, differentiation, and facilitating tissue repair and regeneration. OBJECTIVE: To summarize the current research status of recruitable tissue repair biomaterials in the field of regenerative medicine. METHODS: The first author meticulously retrieved articles from the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and PubMed databases, covering the time span from January 2010 to March 2025. The search terms employed were “biomaterials, recruitment, repair, osteogenesis, cartilage, vascularization” in Chinese and English. After rigorous screening, 90 articles that fulfilled the predefined criteria were included in this review. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: In the field of tissue repair, recruitable tissue repair biomaterials have shown significant value due to their ability to precisely regulate cell migration, proliferation behavior and growth factor activity. By optimizing the spatiotemporal release pattern of growth factors and the activation efficiency of signal pathways, these materials can accelerate directional migration of wound surfaces, thereby promoting tissue regeneration compared with traditional materials. At the design level, adjusting the hydrophilicity, degradation rate and mechanical modulus of the material can ensure the mechanical compatibility and safe degradation of the implant and tissue. In terms of functionalization, surface modification with affinity molecules such as arginine-glycine-aspartic acid peptides and heparin can give the material the ability to specifically bind to integrin receptors or fix growth factors, directly enhancing the target cell adhesion efficiency and prolonging the local action time of growth factors. With controllable degradation-regeneration matching, efficient spatial guidance ability and low immunogenicity, recruitable tissue repair biomaterials provide new tools for difficult problems such as bone defects and vascular regeneration, and expand to the field of complex tissue regeneration such as nerves and cartilage. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Clinical application and prospects of MXene-based materials for the repair of bone defects Wang Liang, Zhang Xin, He Wei, Wang Jian 2026, 30 (20):  5282-5294.  doi: 10.12307/2026.328 Abstract ( 93 )   PDF (1987KB) ( 742 )   Save BACKGROUND: In recent years, two-dimensional transition metal carbon/nitride (MXene) and its derivatives have demonstrated considerable potential for application in the field of bone defect repair due to their excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, high photothermal conversion ability, and intrinsic antimicrobial and osteogenic abilities. OBJECTIVE: To provide a comprehensive description of the biomedical properties of MXene, and to summarize the progress made in the application of MXene-based materials in the repair of bone defects. METHODS: A systematic literature review was conducted across PubMed, Web of Science, CNKI, and WanFang, covering publications from 2005 to 2025. The English and Chinese search terms were “MXene, bone defect, bone repair, bone regeneration, bone tissue engineering.” Following a rigorous screening process, 97 articles were systematically selected for in-depth analysis. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: MXene exhibits excellent biocompatibility along with antimicrobial, antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties, photothermal properties and electrical conductivity. When incorporated into bone tissue engineering scaffolds, MXene can endow the scaffolds with multifunctional characteristics including anti-infective capability, immunomodulatory function, enhanced mechanical strength, and osteogenic potential. These attributes highlight MXene's significant promise as a guided bone regeneration membrane material. Moreover, owing to its remarkable bioactivity and antimicrobial performance, MXene emerges as an ideal candidate for constructing high-performance implant coatings. Notably, the successful development of MXene-based 3D printing inks has established a critical foundation for fabricating bone scaffolds with intricate architectures. The versatile properties of MXene impart multifunctionality to 3D-printed scaffolds, substantially expanding their application prospects in bone defect repair. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Repairing bone defects with active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine combined with hydrogels: successes and challenges Xu Yawei, Meng Shilong, Zhang Xu, Wang Chengjie, Yuan Yifeng, Shi Xiaolin, Wang Jiao, Liu Kang 2026, 30 (20):  5295-5303.  doi: 10.12307/2026.742 Abstract ( 111 )   PDF (1386KB) ( 53 )   Save BACKGROUND: Integrating active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine into hydrogel systems, either as an alternative to growth factors or in synergy with growth factors, is expected to significantly enhance the therapeutic efficacy of biomaterials in bone defect repair. OBJECTIVE: To systematically summarize the benefits of the effective ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine in enhancing the biocompatibility and mechanical properties of hydrogel materials, as well as their recent advancements in facilitating bone repair during the synergistic construction process with hydrogels. METHODS: Chinese and English search terms were “Chinese medicine, Chinese medicine monomer, hydrogel, carrier, bone tissue engineering, bio-material, bone, bone repair, bone defect.” Relevant articles were searched from 2005 to 2025 in the CNKI, WanFang, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 65 articles were included for summary. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Effective ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine can improve biocompatibility, mechanical capabilities, and degradation qualities of hydrogels. Their combined application overcomes the mechanical and bioactivity bottlenecks of single materials. The combination of active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine with hydrogels significantly enhances bone repair capacity through four key dimensions: regulating bone metabolism, promoting cartilage formation, inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress, and promoting vascularization and angiogenesis. However, current research on the combination of active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine with hydrogels in bone tissue engineering remains inadequate, and practical clinical applications remain challenging.  Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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3D-printed biodegradable polyester-based scaffolds in bone regeneration therapy Tang Hao, Zhong Qian, Wu Honghan, Wu Hengpeng, Wu Xingkai, Wa Qingde 2026, 30 (20):  5304-5311.  doi: 10.12307/2026.147 Abstract ( 110 )   PDF (1338KB) ( 37 )   Save BACKGROUND: Degradable polyester-based materials, exemplified by polylactic acid and polycaprolactone, have emerged as research hotspots in bone regeneration due to their controllable degradability, robust mechanical properties, and biocompatibility. However, the inherent hydrophobicity of these materials, the acidic microenvironment of degradation byproducts, and the compatibility with traditional bone repair needs still need to be further optimized. OBJECTIVE: To systematically investigate the compatibility between the physicochemical properties of polyester-based materials and 3D printing techniques, elucidate scaffold pore modulation, bioactive factor loading strategies, and degradation-regeneration synchronization mechanisms, and critically evaluate current technical bottlenecks and clinical translation barriers. METHODS: Chinese and English search terms were “printing, three-dimensional, 3D printing, three-dimensional printing, additive manufacturing, bioprinting, biocompatible materials, absorbable implants, polyesters, bioabsorbable, bioresorbable, biodegradable, resorbable, polyester, PLA, polylactic acid, PGA, polyglycolic acid, PCL, polycaprolactone, bone regeneration, bone and bones, bone tissue engineering, bone regeneration, bone repair, osseous regeneration, bone defect, fracture healing, osteogenesis, tissue scaffolds, scaffold, 3D scaffold.” We searched for relevant literature in PubMed, CNKI, and WanFang databases. Finally, 71 articles were included for review. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: 3D-printed polyester scaffolds demonstrate remarkable potential in bone repair through personalized structural design, bionic multiscale porosity, and precise biofunctionalization. However, critical challenges persist: limited cell adhesion due to material hydrophobicity, localized inflammatory risks from degradation byproducts, and insufficient printing resolution for microvascular structure biomimicry. Future research should integrate material modifications (e.g., molecular weight gradient control and topological optimization), intelligent printing technologies (e.g., 4D-responsive materials), and standardized clinical evaluation frameworks to advance functionalized bone regeneration scaffolds toward clinical translation. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Role of bioscaffolds in the repair of inflammation-driven bone and cartilage destruction and structural damage in temporomandibular joint He Zhenzhen, Huang Hanji, Wang Jiawei, Xie Qingtiao, Jiang Xianfang 2026, 30 (20):  5312-5320.  doi: 10.12307/2026.669 Abstract ( 81 )   PDF (1305KB) ( 36 )   Save BACKGROUND: Conventional therapies for temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis exhibit limited capacity in regulating disease progression, struggling to reverse inflammation-driven osteochondral destruction and structural impairments. Through multi-scale biomimetic design, hydrogel bioscaffolds achieve precise matching of mechanical properties and bioactivities, enabling temporal regulation of tissue differentiation and promoting interfacial integration repair. This innovation provides critical insights into overcoming therapeutic bottlenecks in temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis. OBJECTIVE: To investigate recent advancements in applying bioscaffolds for osteochondral repair of the temporomandibular joint, and to evaluate their translational potentials and existing limitations. METHODS: A comprehensive search was conducted in the CNKI, Web of Science, and PubMed databases for all relevant Chinese and English literature up to January 2025. The Chinese and the English search terms were “TMJ, TMD, temporomandibular joint, temporomandibular disease, scaffold, hydrogels, bone repair, cartilage repair.” According to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 73 articles were finally selected for review. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: For temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis, current clinical applications predominantly utilize natural-derived scaffolds and decellularized matrix scaffolds, yet their compositional complexity and batch-to-batch variability limit precise control. Synthetic polymer scaffolds and 3D printed scaffolds exhibit significant advantages in terms of controllable scale structure and personalization. By incorporating cells, drugs, or exosomes, the osteoinduction and cartilage-promoting abilities of scaffolds can be further improved, which not only breaks through the passive support limitations of traditional scaffolds, but also promotes their evolution into intelligent responsive tissue regeneration platforms. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Biomaterials regulate microenvironment imbalance for treating spinal cord injury Wang Zitong, Wu Zijian, Yang Aofei, Mao Tian, Fang Nan, Wang Zhigang 2026, 30 (20):  5321-5330.  doi: 10.12307/2026.670 Abstract ( 98 )   PDF (2957KB) ( 41 )   Save BACKGROUND: In recent years, tissue engineering biomaterials have shown unique advantages in regulating microenvironment imbalance and reconstructing nerve conduction pathways, providing diversified and innovative solutions for breaking through the bottleneck of spinal cord injury repair. OBJECTIVE: To systematically explain the core pathological mechanism and dynamic evolution of microenvironment imbalance after spinal cord injury and the strategy of biomaterials to regulate microenvironment imbalance and repair spinal cord injury. METHODS: The first author used a computer in February 2025 to retrieve the relevant literature published from inception to February 2025 on PubMed and CNKI. The English search terms were “spinal cord injuries, biocompatible materials, microenvironment” and the Chinese search terms were “spinal cord injury, biomaterials, microenvironment,” eventually incorporating 65 papers for analysis. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: After spinal cord injury, the microenvironment changes include hemorrhage, ischemia, glial scar formation, a persistent inflammatory cycle, and loss of neurotrophic factors. The regulatory and repair mechanisms at cellular and molecular levels after injury still require further investigation. Current biomaterial strategies effectively target microenvironment imbalances through multiple approaches (such as antioxidant/anti-inflammatory effects, structural support, and controlled delivery of therapeutic factors), promoting nerve regeneration and functional recovery. Existing biomaterials need optimization in biocompatibility, degradation rates, and mechanical properties. Single-material systems struggle to address the complexity of spinal cord injury pathology. In the future, multi-target strategies (such as combining stem cell/gene therapies), clinical translation requiring rigorous safety and efficacy validation. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Chitosan hydrogel drug delivery system is a safer and more effective solution for treating oral ulcers Wang Jieyan, Yao Jiayi, Xin Yingtong, Zhang Xinwen, Li Riwang, Liu Dahai 2026, 30 (20):  5331-5340.  doi: 10.12307/2026.150 Abstract ( 106 )   PDF (4891KB) ( 40 )   Save BACKGROUND: Chitosan hydrogel has become an important basic material for constructing an ideal oral drug delivery system due to its multiple biological properties that are highly adapted to the oral environment.  OBJECTIVE: To summarize the research progress of chitosan hydrogel drug delivery system in the treatment of oral ulcers. METHODS: A computerized search was performed in PubMed and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases for relevant literature published from inception to September 2024. The English and Chinese search terms were "oral ulcer, oral mucosal injury, drug delivery system, stimulus response, chitosan hydrogel, drug delivery system, healing mechanism." Finally, 66 articles were included for review.  RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Chitosan hydrogels are widely used in drug delivery systems, especially in oral ulcer treatment, because of their excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and gel-forming properties, which show a broad prospect. Chitosan has good film-forming and slow-release ability, which can effectively protect the active ingredients of drugs, prolong the efficacy time, and enhance the efficiency of local treatment. Meanwhile, chitosan has antibacterial, tissue regeneration and other biological activities, which can directly participate in the repair process of the ulcer site, reduce the inflammatory response, and shorten the healing cycle. By compounding with other natural polymers or functional factors, the performance of chitosan hydrogel can be further improved to enhance its adaptability and stability in the complex oral environment. Future research could focus on the in-depth validation of its clinical efficacy, the optimization of personalized drug delivery, and the construction of an intelligent responsive drug delivery system, so as to improve therapeutic precision and patient compliance, and provide a safer and more effective solution for the treatment of refractory oral ulcers. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Improved clinical outcomes with fiber posts: personalized design, precise surface treatments, and advanced materials and technologies Bai Huahui, Wei Mengting, Quan Zhiheng, Yang Lurui, Hu Yichun, Fu Jiale 2026, 30 (20):  5341-5348.  doi: 10.12307/2026.054 Abstract ( 94 )   PDF (1345KB) ( 28 )   Save BACKGROUND: Fiber post is a non-metallic dental restoration material with excellent mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and aesthetic effect. It can be used to restore endodontically treated teeth with a wide range of structural defects. OBJECTIVE: To review the classification characteristics of fiber posts and their application progress in clinical prosthodontics. METHODS: The articles about fiber post were searched in CNKI and PubMed databases by computer. The Chinese search terms were “fiber post, classification, dentin ferrule, restoration failure, fiber post removal, CAD/CAM.” The English search terms were “dental fiber post, classification, ferrule, failure of repair, dental fiber post removal, CAD/CAM.” A total of 82 articles were finally included for analysis.  RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: According to the fiber composition, fiber posts can be divided into carbon fiber posts, glass fiber posts, and quartz fiber posts, and glass fiber posts are the most widely used in clinical practice. The retention force and resistance of fiber posts are closely related to the remaining ferrule, and the number, height, and thickness of the remaining ferrule usually determine the choice of fiber post restoration indications. The bonding process of fiber posts has certain technical requirements, so it is particularly important to follow the standardized operation process. Although fiber posts have good mechanical properties, they may not fit the root canal, become loose, fall off, break or demolition after failed repair during clinical use. It is expected to improve the clinical application effect of fiber posts by customizing and personalizing fiber posts, selecting appropriate surface treatment methods, and exploring new materials and technologies. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Application and development trend of hydrogels in ophthalmic diseases Liu Shuting, Qiu Muen, Li Wei 2026, 30 (20):  5349-5360.  doi: 10.12307/2026.146 Abstract ( 109 )   PDF (1691KB) ( 50 )   Save BACKGROUND: Hydrogel materials, with their good histocompatibility as well as tunable physicochemical properties and photoresponsive behaviors, have shown potential for application in several medical technology fields such as corneal regeneration, vitreous replacement, lens repair, and retinal regeneration.  OBJECTIVE: To sort out the main research progress of hydrogels in ophthalmic disease treatment, covering the material types and their applications in tissue repair, drug delivery and 3D printing, as well as to discuss the current problems and future development trends.  METHODS: Using "hydrogel, ophthalmology, tissue engineering, drug transport, 3D printing" as English and Chinese search terms, we searched the PubMed database and CNKI database for the relevant literature published from the establishment to February 2025. According to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 145 articles were finally included for review.  RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Hydrogels have achieved preliminary results in corneal damage repair, vitreous replacement materials and slow release of fundus drugs. It has been pointed out that the dynamic regulation of the crosslinking degree and mechanical properties of the material can be achieved by adjusting the light conditions, so as to meet the therapeutic requirements of different parts of the eye. With the assistance of three-dimensional printing and other technologies, the personalized application of hydrogel has also been further enhanced. Some animal experiments show that it has good prospects in tissue repair and drug release. However, most of the current data are still derived from murine or rabbit models, and there is a lack of higher-order animal studies that are closer to human physiology. In addition, the existing results have not yet been effectively aligned with actual needs in the clinical translation pathway. Overall, hydrogels have the potential to be used as a platform for ophthalmic tissue engineering and drug delivery, but the clinical translation process still needs to address key issues such as material improvement, reliability of experimental models, and landing of results. In the future, if we can optimize the formulation, establish a more suitable research model, and strengthen the synergy between disciplines, it is expected to accelerate the practical application of hydrogel in ophthalmic precision therapy. Figures and Tables | References | Related Articles | Metrics