Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research ›› 2026, Vol. 30 ›› Issue (26): 6923-6929.doi: 10.12307/2026.828

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Three-dimensional bioprinting and tendon repair: application advances and future directions 

Liu Xuemiao1, 2, Zhang Yuchang1, 2, Zhang Weiguo1, Tian Kang1, Wang Xing2   

  1. 1Department of Joint Surgery and Sports Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116000, Liaoning Province, China; 2Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
  • Accepted:2026-01-01 Online:2026-09-18 Published:2026-03-16
  • Contact: Wang Xing, PhD, Associate researcher, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
  • About author:Liu Xuemiao, Doctoral candidate, Department of Joint Surgery and Sports Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116000, Liaoning Province, China; Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
  • Supported by:
    National Natural Science Foundation of China, No. 52373162 (to WX)

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Currently, three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology, with its controllable multi-scale structure and functional integration design capabilities, has become a cutting-edge solution for tendon tissue engineering. 
OBJECTIVE: To systematically summarize the latest research progress of 3D bioprinting technology in tendon repair. 
METHODS: Using the keywords “3D printing, bioink, myotendinous junction, tendon repair, tendon-bone junction, bionic scaffold,” literature searches were conducted in the PubMed and Web of Science databases, as well as in the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) with the same keywords. Articles with weak relevance to the topic were excluded, and 109 articles were ultimately included for review.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: 3D bioprinting technology, through multi-material integration and controllable biomimetic structure design, effectively reproduces the multi-level structure of tendons. Mainstream technologies (such as melt electrospinning and extrusion printing) play differentiated advantages in fiber arrangement, interface simulation, and dynamic regulation, constructing mechanical transition layers at the muscle-tendon interface and four-zone gradient structures at the tendon-bone interface. Functional innovations in bioinks (such as immunomodulatory materials and cross-species oxygen supply scaffolds) and multi-technology synergy (directional fiber deposition + photo-curing enhancement) enhance the biological activity and mechanical-biological coupling ability of the scaffolds. Throughout the entire healing cycle (support in the inflammatory phase, guidance in the proliferative phase, and regulation in the remodeling phase), it achieves precise intervention from the molecular to the macroscopic level, optimizing collagen arrangement and repair mechanical properties. Differentiated repair strategies for the muscle-tendon interface, tendon body, and tendon-bone interface (such as multi-material gradients, directional fibers, and gradient scaffolds) have made progress. Despite challenges such as the resolution-efficiency contradiction and insufficient material matching, 3D printing technology still provides new strategies from structural biomimicry to functional regeneration for tendon repair. The integration of smart materials (such as photothermal/piezoelectric) and multi-modal technologies (such as 4D printing and organoids) in the future is expected to promote dynamic functional regeneration and provide technical references for interface repair.

Key words: 3D printing, bioink, myotendinous junction, tendon body, tendon-bone junction, gradient structures, bionic scaffolds

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