Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research ›› 2026, Vol. 30 ›› Issue (31): 8219-8229.doi: 10.12307/2026.783
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Liu Jinrui, Yang Xianguang, Liu Haolong, Li Li, Ruan Zhaohui, Li Yanlin
Received:2025-09-22
Accepted:2026-02-10
Online:2026-11-08
Published:2026-05-25
Contact:
Li Yanlin, MD, Chief physician, Professor, Department of Sports Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, Yunnan Province, China
About author:Liu Jinrui, MS, Department of Sports Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, Yunnan Province, China
Supported by:CLC Number:
Liu Jinrui, Yang Xianguang, Liu Haolong, Li Li, Ruan Zhaohui, Li Yanlin. Exosomes from different sources and osteoarthritis: engineering technology, targeting, and drug carrier function[J]. Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research, 2026, 30(31): 8219-8229.
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2.1 外泌体的生物学基础 外泌体是细胞释放到外部环境中的直径30-150 nm的膜性小囊泡,由细胞内的多泡体产生。它们存在于血液、尿液、唾液等多种体液中,具有携带RNA、DNA、蛋白质等分子并在细胞间传递信息的能力[10-12]。 外泌体的生物合成过程复杂,涉及内涵体分选复合物依赖和非依赖途径。当多泡体与细胞膜融合时,内含的囊泡被释放为外泌体,随后通过与其他细胞相互作用,影响目标细胞的功能[8,13-14]。外泌体的主要成分包括脂质、蛋白质和核酸,这些成分在免疫调节、疾病发展、组织修复等方面具有重要作用。外泌体具有一些特异性的蛋白可作为生物标志物,如表面蛋白CD9、CD63和CD81及其内容物蛋白ALIX等[8-9,15-16]。 外泌体的提取方法包括超速离心、超滤、尺寸排除色谱和免疫亲和分离。为维持外泌体的生物活性,通常在4 ℃短期保存和-80 ℃长期保存。鉴定外泌体需要结合透射电子显微镜、纳米颗粒跟踪分析和蛋白质印迹技术,以确保研究数据的准确性和可靠性[9]。 在骨关节炎研究中,不同来源(如间充质干细胞、体液、牛奶和植物等)外泌体在功能组成、生物标志物表达、药物递送能力及免疫调节潜能方面存在差异。通过工程化修饰、靶向改造或负载功能分子等手段,可有效提升外泌体在组织修复、抗炎、免疫调控等方面的治疗效应(图4)。外泌体研究经历了从细胞外囊泡的早期观察到生物学功能确认,并逐渐扩展至疾病诊断和治疗的应用探索。随着国际细胞外囊泡学会(International Society for Extracellular Vesicles,ISEV)的成立及外泌体研究规范的提出,外泌体相关研究持续拓展,机制与应用研究不断丰富,临床转化潜力逐步显现(图5)。"
2.2 外泌体在骨关节炎早期诊断中的应用进展 骨关节炎在诊断明确时通常已经出现了显著的病理变化和临床症状,严重影响患者生活且目前暂无延缓骨关节炎发展的治疗方法。若能找到骨关节炎早期的诊断方法,则可早诊早治,减缓病程的发展,有效减少骨关节炎所带来的疾病负担。外泌体中包含的物质如信使RNA、微小RNA(miRNAs)、DNA和蛋白质,其含量通常受到原始细胞类型和状态的影响,这些物质可能成为早期诊断的靶标[17-18]。外泌体存在于大部分体液中,通过无创或微创的方式获取体液标本,从中提取外泌体进行液体活检,可为实时监测疾病的基因突变提供一种可行的方法。 外泌体的诊断潜力已在癌症诊断领域得到验证,目前已有多款试剂盒成功开发并用于临床。尿液外泌体ExoDx Prostate IntelliScore检测是一种非侵入性尿液测试,通过收集尿液中的外泌体,分析其中RNA的表达(PCA3、ERG、SPDEF),从而帮助早期诊断高等级前列腺癌,特别是针对前列腺特异性抗原水平在2-10 ng/mL之间的男性患者,可以减少不必要的组织病理活检[19-20]。ExoDx? Lung (ALK)是第一个基于外泌体RNA的液体活检试剂盒,旨在从血液样本中分离和分析外泌体RNA,标志着非侵入性诊断技术的重要进步。非小细胞肺癌是常见的肺癌类型,其中最常见的基因突变之一是表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor,EGFR)基因突变。CASTELLANOS-RIZALDOS等[21]研究表明,通过结合外泌体RNA和cfDNA可以更准确地检测EGFR T790M突变。KIM等[22]对54份血浆样本和13份胸腔积液中的EGFR突变情况进行比较,结果显示外泌体联合cfDNA能够更有效地检测和监测EGFR T790M突变。KRUG等[23]通过外泌体RNA结合循环肿瘤DNA检测方法提升了液体活检在非小细胞肺癌诊断中的应用潜力。以上研究为外泌体作为骨关节炎早期诊断标记物提供了参考方向。 对于早期骨关节炎,由于病理变化尚不明显,传统诊断方法难以有效检测。然而,通过富集关节滑液中的外泌体,分析外泌体表型和成分,可识别早期骨关节炎相关的生物标志物,有助于骨关节炎早诊早治。关节液和血液是两种较易获取的体液来源。外泌体由多种细胞和组织分泌,其中中性粒细胞和滑膜成纤维细胞分泌的外泌体已在类风湿关节炎和骨关节炎的关节滑液中检测到。SONG等[24]发现类风湿关节炎患者的滑液外泌体因高水平的核因子κB受体活化因子配体而更显著地促进破骨细胞生成,可能携带特异性“破骨细胞生成标志”。 外泌体在骨关节炎诊断与疾病进展研究中备受关注(表1)。MUSTONEN等[25]发现血清中细胞外囊泡的四跨膜蛋白谱可反映患者功能受限与疼痛感知,提示四跨膜蛋白作为潜在生物标志物的可能性。KOLHE等[26]报道多种miRNA在不同性别患者的滑液外泌体中存在显著差异表达,为骨关节炎的个体化诊断与治疗提供思路。JI等[27]和WU等[32]研究均聚焦滑膜特异性外泌体中的miR-182,发现其通过调控炎症和凋亡通路,加速骨关节炎进程。GUO等[28]、LI等[30]与GUAN等[29]则分别揭示了外泌体携带的环状RNA(circ-BRWD1、CircStrn3)和miRNA(miR-125等)如何通过特定分子轴或靶基因,影响软骨稳态、炎症反应及软骨下骨重塑,从而加剧骨关节炎病情。此外,ZHAO等[31]鉴定到滑液来源外泌体长链非编码RNA PCGEM1可作为识别骨关节炎不同分期的标志物,TANG等[35]研究表明血清外泌体能诱导NOD样受体热蛋白结构域相关蛋白3介导的细胞焦亡与炎症,进一步加重骨关节炎。LI等[36]利用生物信息学分析发现miR-122-5p在 CS-semi5治疗骨关节炎中起关键调控作用。由此可见,通过分析滑液、血浆等体液中外泌体的谱系差异,有望为骨关节炎及其他关节疾病的诊断和治疗提供重要理论基础。 "
2.3 外泌体在骨关节炎治疗中的研究进展 在骨关节炎治疗中,间充质干细胞来源外泌体是当前研究的热点之一。间充质干细胞在许多临床试验中已展现出治疗潜力,间充质干细胞归巢至软骨缺损部位,通过软骨分化以修复软骨缺损,并通过旁分泌组织修复因子,起到免疫调节、组织修复和再生、抗炎作用[37-38]。然而,间充质干细胞治疗存在一些局限性,包括免疫反应与安全性、间充质干细胞老化、供体和受体的个体差异、潜在的伦理问题、致瘤性等[39-40]。 相比之下,外泌体作为一种细胞外囊泡,具有较低的免疫原性,不存在伦理问题。许多研究已证明,间充质干细胞来源外泌体在骨关节炎治疗中具有积极作用,主要包括促进软骨修复、减少炎症、调节免疫反应以及保护关节软骨和骨质免受进一步退化等[41-51]。间充质干细胞来源多样,包括骨髓、滑膜、脂肪、胎盘、脐带和羊水等。目前,尚未确定哪种间充质干细胞来源外泌体在骨关节炎治疗中的效果和安全性最优。除间充质干细胞外,其他细胞来源外泌体也体现出了骨关节炎治疗潜力。 2.3.1 骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体 来源于骨髓间充质干细胞的外泌体治疗骨关节炎具有显著效果。骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体可促进软骨修复、减轻炎症及疼痛[42,46,52-54]。例如,JAMMES等[55]研究表明,骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体能够显著改善马膝骨关节炎软骨细胞表型,增强软骨功能标志物的表达。CONTENTIN等[56]则通过优化外泌体纯化方法并进行促炎预处理,提高了骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体在马骨关节炎中的疗效。 在骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体中,miRNA的作用受到广泛关注。CHEN等[57]发现骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体中的miR-136-5p 能够抑制创伤性骨关节炎软骨细胞退变,HUANG等[58]指出miR-206通过减少上皮转录因子3的表达促进骨关节炎成骨细胞的增殖和分化。其他miRNA如miR-127-3p[59]、miR-140-3p[60]、miR-361-5p[61]、miR-9-5p[62]、miR-326[63]、miR-95-5p等在调节软骨细胞功能、缓解炎症、促进软骨修复方面发挥了重要作用[64]。此外,骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体中的miR-193b-3p和miR-29a也在调节软骨形成及细胞外基质重塑中发挥了关键作用[65-67]。 除了miRNA,长链非编码RNA在骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体中的作用也备受关注。骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体通过调控LYRM4-AS1/GRPR/miR-6515-5p信号通路[68]、TUC339的表达以及PINK1/Parkin信号通路[69-70],促进M1型巨噬细胞向M2型极化,减轻骨关节炎的炎症反应并促进软骨修复。此外,长链非编码RNA SNHG7通过调节miR-485-5p/FSP1轴,抑制炎症和铁死亡,进一步缓解骨关节炎症状[71]。 综上所述,骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体中的多种miRNA和长链非编码RNA通过调节细胞功能、抑制炎症及促进软骨修复,在骨关节炎治疗中发挥重要作用。骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体的主要挑战在于供者衰老和细胞增殖能力较低。随着年龄增长,骨髓中间充质干细胞的数量和质量下降,老年供者的骨髓间充质干细胞功能减弱,进而影响外泌体的治疗效果。此外,骨髓间充质干细胞的增殖能力较弱,限制了外泌体的大规模生产,且骨髓样本的获取具有一定侵入性,干细胞来源较为有限。因此,骨髓间充质干细胞来源外泌体在规模化应用中面临产量和一致性问题。 2.3.2 脂肪间充质干细胞来源外泌体 脂肪间充质干细胞来源外泌体在骨关节炎中同样展现出治疗潜力。脂肪间充质干细胞的常用来源有皮下脂肪和髌下脂肪垫,皮下脂肪可通过抽脂术获取,髌下脂肪垫可在膝关节置换术和关节镜手术中获取,这两种术中获取的脂肪组织可作为干细胞提取的良好来源。TOFI?O-VIAN等[51]研究发现脂肪间充质干细胞来源外泌体能够下调骨关节炎成骨细胞的衰老特征。脂肪间充质干细胞来源外泌体中的miRNA亦被广泛研究,LI等[72]研究表明,脂肪间充质干细胞来源外泌体通过转运miR-376c-3p并靶向Wnt/β-catenin信号轴来缓解骨关节炎。MENG等[73]发现脂肪间充质干细胞来源外泌体中的miR-429通过靶向FEZ2的自噬改善骨关节炎软骨损伤。ZHAO等[74]研究发现脂肪间充质干细胞来源外泌体通过上调miR-145和miR-221,促进软骨形成并抑制炎症。WU等[75]研究发现来自髌下脂肪垫间质干细胞的富含miR-100-5p的外泌体能够保护关节软骨,并通过抑制哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白改善步态异常。此外,过氧化还原酶6在人脂肪间充质干细胞微泡中发挥软骨保护作用。康俊峰等[76]发现脂肪间充质干细胞来源外泌体及膝痹宁Ⅱ均可以通过促进PINK1/Parkin信号通路表达,提高软骨细胞线粒体自噬水平,延缓软骨组织退变,且二者联用可以增强疗效。 脂肪间充质干细胞来源外泌体主要存在脂肪组织异质性和炎症状态问题。脂肪组织在肥胖个体中常伴有慢性低度炎症,这种炎症环境可能改变脂肪间充质干细胞及其外泌体的功能,影响在抗炎和再生治疗中的效果。此外,虽然脂肪组织来源广泛,获取相对容易,但从中分离出高纯度的干细胞仍具有挑战,比如需要避免脂肪前体细胞的混入。 2.3.3 滑膜间充质干细胞来源外泌体 滑膜是位于关节腔内的结缔组织,分泌滑液以润滑和营养关节。滑膜组织通常在膝关节置换手术和关节镜手术中获取,可用于提取滑膜间充质干细胞。LONG等[77]在体内和体外的研究均表明滑膜间充质干细胞来源外泌体通过MATN3可缓解膝骨关节炎。此外,KONG等[78-79]研究发现滑膜间充质干细胞来源外泌体中的miR-320c通过靶向ADAM19依赖的Wnt信号通路,促进软骨损伤修复。QIU等[80]发现人滑膜间充质干细胞来源外泌体介导的miR-129-5p通过靶向高迁移率族蛋白B1缓解白细胞介素1诱导的骨关节炎。QIU等[81]发现滑膜间充质干细胞来源外泌体 miR-485-3p通过靶向神经纤毛蛋白1介导的磷脂酰肌醇3激酶/蛋白激酶B通路缓解骨关节炎软骨损伤。王智超等[82]发现金天格胶囊治疗骨关节炎的药效作用明显,作用机制可能与促进滑膜间充质干细胞来源外泌体靶向关节软骨细胞转运miRNA进而调控Serpinb10、Ntn1、Il1b、Tgm2、Megf10 、Il11、Cd40、Slc15a3、Pou2f2等基因有关。 滑膜间充质干细胞来源外泌体的应用也受到滑膜组织来源的限制,滑膜组织通常需要通过手术获取,尽管比骨髓获取创伤性小,但仍然需要关节镜手术操作,尤其在健康供体中较难获取。此外,不同关节部位的滑膜组织异质性较大,可能导致滑膜间充质干细胞来源外泌体的功能存在差异性,影响治疗效果的稳定性。关节炎可能进一步改变滑膜组织质量,导致外泌体功能受影响。 2.3.4 脐带间充质干细胞来源外泌体 脐带间充质干细胞因获取过程相对简单且无伦理争议,在再生医学和组织工程中得到了广泛研究和应用。脐带间充质干细胞来源外泌体已被证实可通过促进软骨细胞增殖、减少凋亡、减轻炎症、调节巨噬细胞极化及软骨基质代谢相关蛋白的表达,减缓骨关节炎发展[41,43,83-85]。脐带间充质干细胞来源外泌体通过miR-100-5p/NOX4轴抑制活性氧产生和软骨细胞凋亡[86]。此外,研究发现,脐带间充质干细胞来源外泌体可使骨关节炎软骨细胞恢复活力,p53信号通路是其中的关键因素[44] 。人脐带间充质干细胞来源细胞外囊泡通过与甲基转移酶3相互作用降低巨噬细胞NOD样受体热蛋白结构域相关蛋白3的m6A水平,从而缓解小鼠膝骨关节炎[87]。 脐带间充质干细胞来源外泌体由于来源丰富、低免疫原性和广泛的治疗潜力,在再生医学中具有极大的应用前景。然而,要将脐带间充质干细胞来源外泌体广泛应用于临床,仍需要解决外泌体提取、纯化、异质性和规模化生产等方面的技术难题,同时加强对长期效能和安全性的研究。 2.3.5 其他来源外泌体 脐血、胎盘和胚胎来源间充质干细胞外泌体也显示出对骨关节炎的治疗作用。脐血间充质干细胞通过miR-29a-3p/FOS轴分泌的长链非编码RNA H19用于中枢性骨关节炎疼痛敏化[88]。在人胚胎间充质干细胞的研究中,外泌体被证明可以促进骨软骨细胞再生并通过平衡软骨细胞外基质的合成和降解来缓解骨关节炎[50,89]。此外,在大鼠骨关节炎模型中,人胎盘来源外泌体减轻了疼痛负担,恢复了软骨退化,并以剂量依赖的方式下调了促炎、分解代谢或凋亡蛋白的表达[90]。FOTOUHI等[91]证实来自Wharton’s Jelly的外泌体能显著减少滑膜细胞中关键炎症递质的表达,为骨关节炎治疗提供了潜在的抗炎疗效。 除了间充质干细胞外泌体,还有其他细胞和体液可作为外泌体的来源。诱导多能干细胞衍生的间充质干细胞(induced mesenchymal stem cells,iMSCs)结合了诱导多能干细胞的多能性和间充质干细胞的自我更新与多向分化能力,在再生医学、组织工程和细胞治疗等领域具有重要的应用前景。研究发现,与滑膜间充质干细胞来源外泌体相比,诱导多能干细胞衍生的间充质干细胞来源外泌体在骨关节炎治疗中表现出更显著的效果[92]。牙髓干细胞来源外泌体通过抑制瞬时感受器电位香草酸受体4介导的破骨细胞活化,减轻了小鼠膝关节炎[93] 。通过对miR-100-5p/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白研究,人脱落乳牙干细胞外泌体在颞下颌关节软骨细胞中的抗炎作用也得到了证实[94]。LIN等[95]研究表明来自人乳牙干细胞的外泌体通过核因子κB途径显著抑制骨关节炎的炎症,促进软骨修复。ZHANG等[96]研究表明骨骼干细胞衍生外泌体通过促进细胞迁移、增加细胞外基质产生和减少炎症反应,有效促进了半月板撕裂的愈合和次发性骨关节炎的改善。 血液也包含大量的外泌体。以血清外泌体为载体,通过搭载激活转录因子4诱导自噬,可以抑制骨关节炎的发展[97]。富血小板血浆在临床上已用于多种疾病的治疗,而其来源外泌体在骨关节炎治疗中也显示出新的潜力。来自富血小板血浆的外泌体介导距下骨关节炎的软骨保护作用[98]。来源于富血小板血浆的外泌体通过Wnt/β-catenin信号通路促进软骨细胞增殖和抑制细胞凋亡[99]。 髓系免疫细胞来源外泌体也可参与骨关节炎的治疗。例如,M2巨噬细胞来源外泌体通过抑制磷脂酰肌醇3激酶/蛋白激酶B/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白通路对膝骨关节炎大鼠发挥治疗作用[100]。此外,M2巨噬细胞来源外泌体中的miR-26b-5p通过靶向Toll样受体3和X型胶原蛋白α1调节巨噬细胞极化和软骨细胞肥大,从而缓解骨关节炎[101]。地高辛通过下调滑膜巨噬细胞M1样极化及其衍生的外泌体miR-146b-5p/Usp3&Sox5轴,改善关节炎症微环境[102]。SI等[103]揭示了M1型巨噬细胞来源外泌体中的miR-363通过靶向Ras-GTP酶激活蛋白2显著抑制软骨细胞的增殖和存活,并增强炎症反应。 关节中的组织和细胞分泌的外泌体亦可对骨关节炎产生影响,例如软骨祖细胞、骨细胞和滑膜成纤维细胞。LIU等[104]研究表明,敲低环状RNA PRKCH可以通过调节miR-502-5p/血小板反应蛋白解整合素金属肽酶5轴减轻白细胞介素1β处理的软骨细胞表型变化,而软骨细胞分泌的外泌体能够在细胞间转移环状RNA PRKCH。在小鼠软骨损伤模型中,MRL/MpJ“超级愈合”小鼠软骨源性祖细胞分泌的外泌体可以增强关节软骨修复[105]。XU等[106]研究表明,来自软骨干细胞/祖细胞的外泌体能显著促进亚急性骨关节炎大鼠膝关节软骨修复,这主要得益于外泌体中的周期蛋白依赖性激酶9,它对软骨细胞的生长和迁移起关键作用。骨细胞来源外泌体通过调节DLX2/Wnt通路,缓解骨关节炎,并介导软骨修复。滑膜成纤维细胞来源外泌体miR-214-3p抑制骨关节炎大鼠软骨组织的炎症和变性[107]。滑液外泌体来源miR-182-5p通过下调肿瘤坏死因子α诱导蛋白8和通过微管相关蛋白轻链 3信号促进自噬来缓解骨关节炎[27]。 此外, LIU等[108]研究表明过表达 miR-140-5p人尿源干细胞来源外泌体通过下调血管内皮生长因子A缓解大鼠膝骨关节炎。鹿茸也可作为一种干细胞来源,其外泌体可以缓解间充质干细胞衰老和骨关节炎[109]。来源于宿主和肠道微生物群的细胞外囊泡可作为靶向治疗骨质疏松和骨关节炎的有前途的纳米载体[110]。LIU等[111]证实大蒜衍生外泌体能通过抑制丝裂原活化蛋白激酶信号通路,减少软骨基质的降解和炎症,从而在体内外模型中有效缓解骨关节炎。 综上所述,外泌体通过多种机制发挥作用,包括促进软骨细胞增殖、减少凋亡、减轻炎症、调节巨噬细胞极化以及调控软骨基质代谢等。它们不仅直接作用于受损的软骨细胞,还通过调节免疫和炎症反应间接改善关节环境。尽管干细胞外泌体在骨关节炎治疗中展现出广阔的前景,但仍面临一些挑战。首先,需进一步深入研究外泌体的具体分子机制,以明确各类外泌体中关键成分的作用模式;其次,间充质干细胞及其外泌体的制备、纯化和质量控制方法亟需进一步优化,以确保在临床应用中的安全性和有效性;此外,尽管已有研究探讨了不同来源外泌体在骨关节炎治疗中的疗效和机制,但目前关于不同来源外泌体疗效的系统性比较研究尚不充分。因此,未来应开展更全面的研究,以系统评估不同来源外泌体的疗效和机制差异。由于外泌体的提取方法和使用剂量尚未统一,这可能导致临床效果的变异,因此标准化外泌体的提取、纯化过程及剂量使用,也是未来研究的方向。表2对不同来源外泌体进行归纳讨论。"
2.4 外泌体改善骨关节炎疗效的增强策略 天然外泌体在骨关节炎治疗中的效果和机制已得到广泛研究。然而,由于外泌体的治疗效果受到多种因素的影响,具不可控性,这是其临床应用的重要障碍之一。将药物递送到软骨细胞,仍然是骨关节炎分子治疗的一个重大挑战[112]。外泌体在治疗中需要满足高产量、靶向性、稳定性和有效性的要求。近年来,工程化外泌体因在生物医学领域的巨大潜力而备受关注。与天然外泌体相比,工程化外泌体通过表面修饰和内部治疗分子的修饰,具备更强的靶向性、更高的载药能力以及更优越的治疗效果[113]。对外泌体来源细胞的预处理可以提高外泌体的产量。优化外泌体的载体可有助于保持稳定性。随着生物材料科学的发展,凝胶作为外泌体的稳定载体,通过延长外泌体的作用时间、控制释放速率和增强靶向性,显著提高了外泌体的治疗效果[114]。以下就外泌体在骨关节炎治疗中疗效增强策略进行综述(表3)。 "
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